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28. Reutterer B, Stockinger S, Pilz A, Soulat D, Kastner R, Westermayer S, Rulicke T, Muller M, Decker T: Type I IFN are host modulators of strain-specific Listeria monocytogenes virulence. Cell Microbiol 2008,10(5):1116–1129.PubMedCrossRef 29. Schwartz KT, Carleton JD, Quillin SJ, Rollins SD, Portnoy DA, Leber JH: Hyperinduction of host beta interferon by a Listeria monocytogenes strain naturally overexpressing the multidrug efflux pump MdrT. Infect Immun 2012,80(4):1537–1545.PubMedCrossRef 30. Doyle TC, Burns SM, Contag CH: In vivo bioluminescence imaging for integrated studies of infection. Cell Microbiol 2004,6(4):303–317.PubMedCrossRef 31. Huys L, Van Hauwermeiren F, Dejager L, Dejonckheere E, Lienenklaus S, Weiss S, Leclercq G, Libert C: Type I interferon selleck chemicals drives tumor necrosis factor-induced lethal shock. J Exp Med 2009,206(9):1873–1882.PubMedCrossRef 32. Mahieu T, Park JM, Revets H, Pasche B, Lengeling A, Staelens J, Wullaert A, Vanlaere I, Hochepied T, van Roy F: The wild-derived inbred mouse strain SPRET/Ei is resistant to LPS and defective in IFN-beta production. Proc Natl Acad Sci

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The opposite behaviors of the strain in mono- and double-PSi stacks may be explained by taking into account the interaction between the HPL and the LPL. We are in presence of a LPL with lower-stressed pores (small size pores) on top of considerably higher-stressed pores (larger size) in the HPL [4]. The lower-stressed pores of the LPL will

help the relaxation of the higher-stressed pores of the HPL through their interface. In the case of a thinner LPL, only a small force is exerted on the top of the HPL, leading to a minimal relaxation force of strain in the HPL pores. When the thickness of the LPL is increased, a higher force is exerted on the HPL, helping its pores to relieve more stress. Similarly, a HPL without any LPL on top results in Selleck ABT 263 the highest strain value, as illustrated experimentally in Figure 6. This shows that the main source of strain in a double layer of PSi is the strain which is coming from the HPL and that the LPL releases strain from this stack. Nevertheless, this model does not directly explain the asymptotic behavior of the strain as the LPL thickness increases. To conclude, in case of double layer of PSi, a thicker LPL should be preferred for growing lower-strained stacks, and the

interaction between the various stack components LDK378 in vitro should be taken into account. Effect of annealing time on strain and surface roughness After monitoring as-etched double layers, the effect of annealing time on the strain and surface roughness was investigated on stacks with a fixed LPL and HPL, as listed in Table 1 (column “Impact of annealing

time”). Figure 7 shows XRD profiles of the annealed double layer of PSi. Similarly to the case of PSi monolayers, the strain switches from tensile to compressive after annealing. Furthermore, the angular splitting of the XRD peaks decreases as the annealing Protein kinase N1 time of the double layer of PSi increases over the investigated range. This indicates a ~37% incremental decrease in the out-of-plane compressive strain from 1.9 × 10−4 to 1.2 × 10−4, as shown in Figure 8. Finally, a thicker-LPL stack shows a lower strain than a thinner-LPL stack, as shown in Figure 8 with two LPL of 750- and 1,300-nm thickness. Figure 7 XRD profiles of annealed double layers of PSi with cross-sectional SEM images of different annealing times (1, 5, 10 and 30 min). The PSi-peak shift toward the Si-peak suggests a decrease of strain with annealing time that may be correlated with the disappearance of pillars in the HPL. Figure 8 The out-of-plane compressive strain values of the annealed double layer of PSi with 750- and 1,300-nm-thick LPL. Strain is released gradually from the layers as the annealing time increases. Similarly to the as-etched samples, a thicker LPL leads to a lower-strained stack, but strains equalize for longer annealing times.

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10. Calvo AM: The VeA regulatory system and its role in morphological and chemical development in fungi. Fungal Genet Biol 2008,45(7):1053–1061.PubMedCrossRef 11. Buchanan RL, Stahl HG: Ability of various carbon sources to induce and support aflatoxin synthesis by Aspergillus parasiticus. J Food Saf 1984,6(4):271–279.CrossRef 12. Kachholz T, Demain AL: Nitrate repression of averufin and aflatoxin biosynthesis. J Nat Prod 1983,46(4):499–506.CrossRef 13. Aziz NH, Moussa LA: Influence of white light, near-UV irradiation and other environmental LY2109761 order conditions on production of aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus flavus and ochratoxin A by Aspergillus ochraceus. Mol Nutr Food Res 1997,41(3):150–154. 14. Joffe AZ, Lisker N: Effects of light, temperature, and pH value on aflatoxin production in vitro. Appl Microbiol 1969,18(3):517–518.PubMed 15. Trenk HL, Hartman PA: Effects of moisture content and temperature on aflatoxin production in corn. Appl

Microbiol 1970,19(5):781–784.PubMed 16. Buchanan RL, Ayres JC: Effect of initial pH on aflatoxin production. Appl Microbiol 1975,30(6):1050–1051.PubMed 17. Clevstrom G, Ljunggren H, Tegelstrom S, Tideman K: Production selleck kinase inhibitor of aflatoxin by an Aspergillus flavus isolate cultured under a limited oxygen supply. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983,46(2):400–405.PubMed 18. Shih CN, Marth EH: Aflatoxin formation, lipid synthesis, and glucose metabolism by Aspergillus parasiticus during incubation with and without agitation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1974,338(1):286–296.CrossRef 19. Watanabe CMH, Townsend CA: Incorporation of molecular oxygen in aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis. J Org Chem 1996,61(6):1990–1993.CrossRef 20. Price MS, Shannon BCB, Sabrina TB, Robert AKB, Payne GA: Aflatoxin conducive and non-conducive growth conditions reveal new gene associations with aflatoxin production. Fungal Genet Biol 2005,42(6):506–518.PubMedCrossRef

21. Wilkinson J, Yu J, Abbas H, Scheffler B, Kim H, Nierman W, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland T: Aflatoxin formation and gene expression in response to carbon source media shift in Aspergillus parasiticus. Selleck Pomalidomide Food Addit Contam 2007,24(10):1051–1060.PubMedCrossRef 22. Davis ND, Diener UL: Growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus from various carbon sources. Appl Environ Microbiol 1968,16(1):158–159. 23. Abdollahi A, Buchanan RL: Regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis: characterization of glucose as apparent inducer of aflatoxin production. J Food Sci 1981,46(2):633–635.CrossRef 24. Abdollahi A, Buchanan RL: Regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis: induction of aflatoxin production by various carbohydrates. J Food Sci 1981,46(1):143–146.CrossRef 25. Buchanan RL, Lewis DF: Regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis: effect of glucose on activities of various glycolytic enzymes.

In contrast, the protein levels corresponding to NorC and the FixP and FixO components of the high affinity cbb 3 oxidase were very weak after incubation

of the cells under anoxic conditions starting at the beginning of the incubation period. The latter observations might explain the limited nitrate-dependent growth capacity of Stem Cell Compound Library E. meliloti when anoxic conditions are induced starting at the beginning of the growth period. Under these conditions, cells would be trapped, without energy, and they would be unable to produce the proteins required to cope with the oxygen-limiting conditions, most likely because of the lack of energy. Supporting this hypothesis, it was reported in Pseudomonas sp. G59 that the formation of nitrate reductase and nitrous oxide reductase did not occur under aerobic or anaerobic conditions; however, nitrate reductase

and nitrous oxide reductase were produced under microaerobic incubation [39]. The latter study suggests that dependence on microaerobiosis for the formation of these reductases was attributable to an inability to produce energy anaerobically until these anaerobic respiratory enzymes formed [39]. Recent studies have shown that the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens is unable to maintain balanced expression of denitrification PLX4032 clinical trial genes if oxygen depletion occurs too quickly [40, 41]. Similarly, the soil bacterium P. denitrificans appears unable to effectively switch from oxic to anoxic respiration, leaving a large fraction of the cell population in anoxia without a chance to express the denitrification proteome [41].

As suggested by Nadeem and co-workers [42], “microaerobic” Baf-A1 purchase denitrification is an essential trait for securing an efficient transition to anaerobic denitrification. Considering that B. japonicum, which is able to grow under anoxic nitrate-respiring conditions, is a slow-growth bacterium and E. meliloti is a fast-growth bacterium, the transition from oxic to anoxic metabolism might be different in these species. Supporting this suggestion, we observed that B. japonicum cells are able to express the FixO and FixP subunits of the cbb 3 oxidase under anoxic conditions (E. Bueno, personal communication). However, as shown in this work, E. meliloti does not express the FixO and FixP proteins under anoxic conditions. A lack of the energy necessary for protein synthesis might contribute to the inability of E. meliloti to grow via nitrate respiration when cells are initially incubated anoxically. Conclusion The potential impact of denitrification by plant endosymbiotic bacteria on the emission of the greenhouse gas N2O has been poorly investigated. The results of this work demonstrate the involvement of the napA, nirK, norC and nosZ genes in the previously reported ability of E.

In the Kruger National Park (Africa) B. anthracis spores have been isolated buy MAPK Inhibitor Library from animal bones estimated to be about 200 years old [2]. The ability of B. anthracis spores to survive outside the body is key for the ecology and evolution of this pathogen. Higgins [3], Minett & Dhanda [4], Van Ness & Stein [5] and Van Ness [6] observed that spores survive in soils rich in organic material and calcium and much better in alkaline soil with pH above

6.0 and a temperature of about 15°C. M. Hugh-Jones (unpublished data) noted that in Texas after heavy rains depressed areas, locally called ‘pot holes’, accumulate humus and minerals from the surrounding soil. The pot holes were found to have calcium concentrations 2–3 times higher, phosphorus 6–10 times and magnesium 2 times higher than the surrounding ground,

and this creates locally favorable conditions to enable a better survival of spores in places with otherwise unfavourable soil, e.g., sandy loams [7]. However the strong hydrophobicity of the surface and the buoyancy of the spores have an important role in the ecology of the bacterium. Van Ness noted that the outbreaks of anthrax develop mainly during the dry months that follow a Sirolimus molecular weight prolonged period of rain. These climatic aspects and the fact that the spores are characterized by a high floating capacity suggest that water plays an important role in the ecology of the bacterium. Rainwater, having washed away the surrounding ground, tends to collect in the low lying parts

favoring the concentration of spores. This increases the probability that a grazing animal will acquire an infective dose of spores. However it takes time and special natural events to create sites of concentrations of spores which can cause new infections in grazing animals [6]. It is very easy to isolate B. anthracis from biological samples. It grows very well on sheep blood agar. The colonies are white, slightly opaque, a pasty Cepharanthine consistency, non-haemolytic and margins slightly indented give the typical appearance to “caput medusae”. However the isolation from the soil is much more difficult than textbooks recount due to the presence of telluric contaminants such as yeasts and bacteria, especially spore-formers, closely related to B. anthracis, such as B. thuringiensis, B. cereus, B. mycoides[8]. The conflicting presence of contaminating bacteria makes it necessary to heat treat a sample to reduce the vegetative forms of this microbial load [9]. However, heat treatment is ineffective against spores closely related to B. anthracis, and this necessitates the use of selective medium [10]. Dragon and Rennie (2001) have shown that a selective culture medium is crucial when isolating B. anthracis from environmental samples.

Vector and adaptor sequences were removed using a cross-match algorithm, and long inserts learn more were assembled using the Phrap method implemented in the MacVector program (version 12.7.4) (http://​www.​macvector.​com). All sequences were used as queries to search the non-redundant protein and nucleotide databases at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) by the BLASTN, BLASTX and TBLASTX algorithms using the KoriBlast program (version 3.4) (http://​www.​korilog.​com). Additional annotations were performed using the Blast2GO program (http://​www.​blast2go.​com/​b2ghome), which included InterProScan for identifying protein domains and gene ontology (GO) analysis.

GO_slim was performed at the CateGOrizer server (http://​www.​animalgenome.​org/​cgi-bin/​util/​gotreei) [11]. Contigs were also mapped onto the metabolic pathways at the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) using the KEGG Automatic Annotation Server (KAAS) (http://​www.​genome.​jp/​tools/​kaas/​) [12]. Candidate tRNA sequences were examined at the tRNAscan-SE server (http://​lowelab.​ucsc.​edu/​tRNAscan-SE/​) see more [13]. Microsatellite sequences (also known as simple sequence repeats, SSRs) were identified using the Phobos (version 3.3.12) program (http://​www.​ruhr-uni-bochum.​de/​spezzoo/​cm/​cm_​phobos.​htm),

in which only perfect matches with a minimal length of 8 nt and a minimal score at 8 were reported. Molecular cloning of parasite ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes The 18S rRNA gene and downstream ITS1, 5.8S rRNA and ITS2 regions from O. petrowi

were cloned by PCR using two pairs of primers: 1) nema18S_F01 (5’-CCA TGC AWG TCT AWG TTC AAA-3’) and nema18S_R01 (5’-GGA AAC CTT GTT ACG ACT TTT G-3’) for the nearly whole 18S region; and 2) nema18S_F1400 (5’-GTC Florfenicol TGT GAT GCC CTT AGA TG-3’) and nema28S_R68 (5’-TTA GTT TCT TTT CCT CCG CTT A-3’) for the region between the 18S and 28S rRNA genes. PCR was performed using a JumpStart REDTaq ReadyMix PCR Reaction kit containing hot-start high-fidelity DNA polymerase (Sigma-Aldrich). After treating with regular Taq DNA polymerase at 72°C for 10 min, PCR amplicons were similarly cloned into the pCR2.1-TOPO vector as described above. At least 10 independent clones from each reaction were sequenced, and all reads were assembled by Phrap as described above. Regions representing 18S, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2 and partial 28S sequences were determined by Rfam (http://​rfam.​janelia.​org) [14]. Phylogenetic reconstructions The assembled O. petrowi 18S rRNA sequence was used as a query to search and identity nematode orthologs from the NCBI nucleotide databases. Up to 1,000 gene sequences were initially retrieved, subjected to multiple sequence alignments using the MUSCLE program (version 3.8.31) (http://​drive5.

55 (95% CI 0.36–0.83; p = 0.003) for endometrial cancer (this difference was not significant in the initial results) [202]. The MORE trial found that 4 years of raloxifene therapy also decreased the incidence of invasive breast cancer amongst postmenopausal women with osteoporosis by 72% compared with placebo. The CORE (an extension trial) examined the effect of four additional years of raloxifene therapy. Incidences of invasive breast cancer and ER-positive invasive breast cancer were reduced by 59% (HR = 0.41; 95% CI = 0.24 to 0.71) and 66% (HR = 0.34; 95% CI = 0.18 to 0.66), respectively, in the raloxifene group compared with the placebo group. There was no difference between the two groups in incidence of ER-negative

invasive breast cancer. Over the 8 years of both trials, the incidences of invasive Saracatinib purchase breast cancer and ER-positive invasive breast cancer were reduced by 66% (HR = 0.34; 95% CI = 0.22

to 0.50) and 76% (HR = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.15 to 0.40), respectively, in the raloxifene group compared with the placebo group [203]. It has further been suggested that breast cancer risk reduction persists for some time in patients who discontinue raloxifene although this conclusion is limited by the post hoc analyses in unrandomised patients and the small sample sizes [204]. Raloxifene reduced also the incidence of invasive breast cancer by 44% (HR = 0.56; 95% CI = 0.38 to 0.83; absolute risk reduction = 1.2 invasive breast cancers per 1,000 women treated for selleck inhibitor 1 year) in the RUTH trial [205]. The lower incidence of invasive breast cancer reflected a 55% lower incidence of invasive ER-positive tumours (HR = 0.45; 95% anti-PD-1 antibody CI = 0.28 to 0.72). However, raloxifene treatment did not reduce the incidence of non-invasive breast cancer or of invasive ER-negative breast cancer. The reduced incidence of invasive breast cancer was similar across subgroups, including those defined by age, body mass index, family history of breast cancer, prior use of postmenopausal hormones and 5-year estimated risk of invasive breast cancer. An updated analysis with an 81-month median follow-up of the STAR trial (tamoxifen (20 mg/day) or raloxifene (60 mg/day) for 5 years

in women at high-risk breast cancer) was published in 2010 [202]. The RR (raloxifene/ tamoxifen) for invasive breast cancer was 1.24 (95% CI 1.05–1.47) and for non-invasive disease, 1.22 (95% CI 0.95–1.59). Compared with initial results, the RRs widened for invasive and narrowed for non-invasive breast cancer [202]. There were no significant mortality differences. Long-term raloxifene retained 76% of the effectiveness of tamoxifen in preventing invasive disease and grew closer over time to tamoxifen in preventing non-invasive disease. In the PEARL trial (n = 8,556), lasofoxifene 0.5 mg reduced the risk of total breast cancer by 79% (hazard ratio 0.21; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.55) and ER+ invasive breast cancer by 83% (hazard ratio 0.17; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.

Notice that we focus on relative measures in comparison to gasoline rather than absolute.   2 The notion will carry through apply similarly for any billed unit (e.g., business unit in a company) and any accounting period.

  3 Due to on and off peak consumption.   4 Fixed costs may be considered to reflect the EP associated with the various infrastructure (distribution network). In later work we show how the deployed capital and externalities can be incorporated into EP.   5 In later work, we show how the deployed capital and externalities can be incorporated into EP.   6 Heating is assumed in natural gas, where 1 EP = 1.44 therms.”
“Introduction The realization that climate change is AZD8055 datasheet posing tangible threats to the sustainability of humanity has given rise to new scientific inquiries, such as the emerging research field of sustainability science (SS). SS aims

to understand the conditions of human–environment Romidepsin interactions and find ways to meet the needs of society while at the same time ensuring that the planet’s life support systems are sustained (Turner et al. 2003; Clark 2007). Conceptualizing vulnerability is a central element within both SS and the climate change discourse owing to the significance of questions such as: who and what is vulnerable to certain climate stressors, where may these be located, how may various societal or natural conditions amplify this vulnerability, and what can be done to respond to and reduce these vulnerabilities? The appeal of vulnerability as a concept lies in its inclusive nature, whereby humans and the natural environment are seen as intimately coupled and differentially

exposed, differentially sensitive, and differentially adaptable to threats (Polsky et al. 2007). Studying Methamphetamine this is difficult, arguably perhaps impossible, because it demands a thorough investigation of every biophysical, social, cultural and cognitive aspect of human–environment interactions (ibid). Accordingly, research focusing on coupled human–environment systems calls for theoretical expertise and methods from several research fields, such as risk- and disaster-management, political ecology, sustainable livelihoods frameworks and resilience research (Ingram et al. 2010). This realization has resulted in many frameworks that attempt to understand vulnerability (Wisner and Luce 1993; Watts and Bohle 1993; Ribot et al. 1996; Kasperson and Kasperson 2001; Brooks 2003; Cutter et al. 2003; Turner et al. 2003; Schröter et al. 2005; Adger 2006; Füssel and Klein 2006; Polsky et al. 2007, Scoones and Thompson 2009; Ionescu et al. 2009; Hinkel 2011; Preston et al. 2011) even if vulnerability itself, like sustainability, can neither be observed nor measured directly, but rather must be deduced (Hinkel 2011). Some scholars (Patt et al.

IMA Fungus 3:175–177PubMedCentralPubMed Grigoriev PA, Schlegel B, Kronen M, Berg A, Härtl A, Gräfe U (2003) Differences in membrane pore formation by peptaibols. J Pept Sci 9:763–768 Guimarães DO, Borges WS, Vieira NJ, de Oliveira LF, da Silva CH, Lopes NP, Dias LG, Durán-Patrón R, Collado IG, Pupo MT (2010) Diketopiperazines produced by endophytic fungi found in association with two Asteraceae species. Phytochemistry 71:1423–1429PubMed RAD001 Harman GE, Howell CR, Viterbo A, Chet I, Lorito M (2004) Trichoderma species – opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts. Nat Rev Microbiol

2:43–56PubMed Hlimi S, Rebuffat S, Goulard C, Duchamp S, Bodo B (1995) Trichorzins HA and MA, antibiotic peptides from Trichoderma

harzianum. II. Sequence determination. J Antibiot 48:1254–1261PubMed Hou CT, Ciegler A, Hesseltine CW (1972) New mycotoxin, trichotoxin A, from Trichoderma viride isolated from Southern Leaf Blight-infected corn. Appl Microbiol 23:183–185PubMedCentralPubMed Huang Q, Tezuka Y, Kikuchi T, Nishi A, Tubaki K, Tanaka K (1995) Studies on metabolites of mycoparasitic fungi. II. Metabolites of Trichoderma koningii. Chem Pharm Bull 43:223–229PubMed Iida A, Okuda M, Uesato S, Takaishi Y, Shingu T, Morita M, Fujita T (1990) Fungal metabolites. Part 3. Structural elucidation of antibiotic peptides, trichosporin-B-lllb, selleck chemicals llc -lllc, -IVb, -IVc, -IVd, -Vla and -Vlb from Trichoderma polysporum. Application of fast-atom bombardment mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry to peptides containing a unique Aib-Pro peptide bond. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:3249–3255

Iida J, Iida Oxalosuccinic acid A, Takahashi Y, Takaishi Y, Nagaoka Y, Fujita T (1993) Fungal metabolites. Part 5. Rapid structure elucidation of antibiotic peptides, minor components of trichosporin Bs from Trichoderma polysporum. Application of linked-scan and continuous-flow fast-atom bombardment mass spectrometry. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:357–365 Iida A, Sanekata M, Wada S, Fujita T, Tanaka H, Enoki A, Fuse G, Kanai M, Asami K (1995) Fungal metabolites. XVIII. New membrane-modifying peptides, trichorozins I–IV, from the fungus Trichoderma harzianum. Chem Pharm Bull 43:392–397PubMed Iida A, Mihara T, Fujita T, Takaishi Y (1999) Peptidic immunosuppressants from the fungus Trichoderma polysporum. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 9:3393–3396PubMed Ishii T, Nonaka K, Suga T, Ōmura S, Shiomi K (2013) Cytosporone S with antimicrobial activity, isolated from the fungus Trichoderma sp. FKI-6626. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 23:679–681PubMed Iwatsuki M, Kinoshita Y, Niitsuma M, Hashida J, Mori M, Ishiyama A, Namatame M, Nishihara-Tsukashima A, Nonaka K, Masuma R, Otoguro K, Yamada H, Shiomi K, Ōmura S (2010) Antitrypanosomal peptaibiotics, trichosporins B-VIIa and B-VIIb, produced by Trichoderma polysporum FKI-4452. J Antibiot 63:331–333PubMed Jaklitsch WM (2009) European species of Hypocrea Part I. The green-spores species.

It is apparent in Figure 1

that the morphologies and sizes of the as-grown CNNCs are strongly dependent on the CH4/N2 ratios. Figure 1a shows that there are almost no intact CNNCs, but many dispersive hemispherical clusters were clearly discerned when the CH4/N2 ratio is 1/80. These CNNCs are in the incomplete-growth stage. As the CH4/N2 ratio was increased, the sizes of the as-grown CNNCs were increased and their morphologies were improved (Figure 1c,d,e). It can be seen in the Figure 1e that the CNNCs grown at the CH4/N2 ratio of 1/5 have rather perfect shape, and their average bottom diameter, average height, and identical apex angle are about 400 nm, 1,000 nm, and 25°, respectively. By comparing the five images (Figure 1a,b,c,d,e), it could be found that the average height and bottom diameter of the as-grown CNNCs increase quickly, but their distribution density changes inapparently www.selleckchem.com/products/3-methyladenine.html as the CH4 feeding RG7204 concentration gas increases. The above phenomena could be explained by that the supersaturation conditions necessary for the nucleation of the CNNCs could be more easily satisfied

for a very little CH4 supply [17]. When the CH4 supply increases, the CN radicals in the plasma also increase and the N2 + or N+ etching effects become weaker relatively, which will lead to the increment of the growth rate of the CNNCs and their more intact conical shape (Figure 1d,e). Figure 1 FESEM images of the CNNC arrays grown at different CH 4 /N 2 feeding gas ratios. (a) 1/80, (b) 1/40, (c) 1/20, (d) 1/10, (e and f) 1/5. (f) The surface morphologies of the P3HT:PCBM-covered CNNC arrays grown at a CH4/N2 feeding gas ratio of 1/5. The samples were prepared on the nickel-covered silicon (100) wafers for 40 min, with a discharge current of 180 mA and a discharge voltage of 350 V. For novel thin film solar cells, such as polymer

inorganic hybrid solar cells, the electrodes made from inorganic nanostructures not only require high optical absorption and good electrical conduction but also nice wettability to absorbers, which is almost the main bottleneck of the development of this kind of solar Histone demethylase cells. The wettability of the CNNC arrays to P3HT:PCBM (weight ratio of 1:0.8), which is a commonly used polymer absorber in polymer organic hybrid solar cells, was examined by the spin coating method. Figure 1f gives the FESEM image of the surface morphology of the P3HT:PCBM-covered CNNC array. It could be seen in Figure 1f that the P3HT:PCBM layer have fully infiltrated the CNNC arrays, and the several higher CNNC tips protrude from the P3HT: PCBM layer, which indicates that the CNNC arrays have very nice wettability to the P3HT:PCBM absorber layers. In order to understand the detailed structures and composition of the CNNCs, the TEM, SAED, and EDXS fitted within the TEM were carried out. The TEM images of the two CNNCs grown at the CH4/N2 ratios of 1/20 and 1/5 are presented in Figure 2a,f.