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recipients: a prospective and multicentre cohort study. Am J Transplant 2012; 12: 1866–1876. 31  Cooper C, Kanters S, Klein M et al. Liver transplant outcomes in HIV-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis with synthetic cohort. AIDS 2011; 25: 777–786. 32  Coffin CS, Stock PG, Dove LM et al. Virologic and clinical outcomes of hepatitis B virus infection in HIV-HBV coinfected transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2010; 10: 1268–1275. 33  Antonini TM, Sebagh M, Roque-Afonso AM et al. Fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis in HIV/HCV co-infected transplant patients – usefulness of early markers after liver transplantation. Am J Transplant 2011; 11: 1686–1695. 34  Joshi D, O’Grady J, Taylor C, Heaton N, Agarwal K. Liver transplantation in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Liver Transpl 2011; 17: 881–890. The Writing Group

thanks the BHIVA Secretariat for administrative help, Alison MG-132 Richards for conducting the systematic literature search and Jacoby Patterson for work on critical appraisal, evidence profiles and construction of GRADE tables. The Writing

Group also thanks Dr Ashley Brown, in his role as Chair of the British Viral Hepatitis Group (BVHG), for his valuable advice and input; Dr Hilary Curtis, for advising and overseeing the development of the Auditable Outcomes; and Dr Adrian Palfreeman and Prof Martin RANTES Fisher for regulating and advising on the development of the guideline according to the process laid down by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). The Writing group also thanks Dr Gail Matthews and Dr Curtis Cooper for their peer review of the guidelines. Dr Ed Wilkins has received advisory board honoraria, speaker fees, and travel/registration reimbursement from Gilead, Merck Sharp and Dohme, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Abbott, Janssen, Boehringer Ingelheim and ViiV. Dr Mark Nelson has received fees from Gilead, Merck Sharp and Dohme, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Abbott, Janssen and ViiV. He has received research funding from Gilead, Merck Sharp and Dohme, ViiV, Janssen, Boehringer Ingelheim and Bristol-Myers Squibb. Dr Kosh Agarwal has received lecture honoraria, speaker fees, and travel/registration reimbursement from Gilead, Merck Sharp and Dohme, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Janssen and Boehringer Ingelheim, and research grants from Roche and Gilead. Ms Dola Awoyemi has no conflicts of interest to declare.

S1). This indicates that this deletion is an ancient trait of the rpoN gene in this group. Although Region

II has been implicated in DNA melting and holoenzyme stability, its absence in all these proteins strongly supports the idea that this region is dispensable for σ54 functioning. Other minor differences were observed, among which the low conservation of the region that encompasses residues 310–330 is the most noticeable. The relevance of these differences remains to be established. Similarity percent was calculated from the sequences included in Fig. S1. From these values (Table S1), we observed that the RpoN proteins from the Rhodobacter genus show a low degree of similarity (around 50–60%), even when the RpoN proteins from BAY 73-4506 mw the same species are compared. Similarity values are also within this range when these sequences are compared with RpoN from E. coli. Considering that α-proteobacteria diverged from γ-β-proteobacteria approximately 2.5 billion years ago (Battistuzzi et al., 2004), it would have been reasonable to assume that the RpoNs should have been more similar among Rhodobacter species than to

species that belong to other groups. This assumption is true for other proteins, but not for RpoN. For instance, RpoB (the beta subunit of the RNA polymerase) is 95% similar between R. sphaeroides IWR-1 price and R. capsulatus species, but only 76% to RpoB from E. coli. Similarly, RpoD (encoding the σ70 factor) from R. sphaeroides is 90% similar to RpoD from R. capsulatus while the RpoDRs and RpoDEc are only 62% similar. Even nonessential genes, like GltB (large subunit of the glutamate synthase), show a 93% similarity between R. capsulatus and R. sphaeroides, but only 59% similarity to GltBEc. Therefore, it seems that in the Rhodobacter genus, the different rpoN copies must have diverged at a higher rate

than other genes in the chromosome. In agreement with this hypothesis, it has been shown that functional duplicated genes usually show a faster evolution rate than other genes in the genome (Kondrashov et al., 2002; Jordan et al., 2004). In Endonuclease accordance, it has been shown that R. sphaeroides has a high degree of gene duplication, and in general, these genes are more similar to their orthologues than to their paralogues (Choudhary et al., 2004), suggesting a high divergence rate. The evolutionary forces that underlie this high rate of divergence remain unclear. Although rpoN genes seem to have been accumulating mutations at a fast rate, the orthologue copies of the different rpoN genes are more similar between them than to their paralogues (Table S1); for example, rpoN1, rpoN2, and rpoN3 from R. azotoformans show a very high similarity (around 90%) to their probable orthologues in R. sphaeroides, suggesting a common origin for all the members of each family of orthologues. The same pattern of sequence similarity could also be due to an HGT origin of these genes.

The finding of a larger amplitude of the N1 component over the right as compared with the left hemisphere sites and of a more widespread group difference in the N1 peak amplitude over the right hemisphere in our FDA approved Drug Library cell line study is noteworthy. Although lateralization effects in ERP results should be interpreted with caution, our results do agree with reports of greater right hemisphere involvement in the processing of spectral information and of timbre in particular (e.g. Belin et al., 2000; Zatorre & Belin, 2001; von Kriegstein

et al., 2003). While the N1 enhancement in musicians was present to all sound types, the relationship between its peak amplitude and measures of musical proficiency was limited to the NAT condition. More specifically, individuals who rated their own musical ability more highly had a larger N1 peak amplitude to both music

and voice deviants. Additionally, individuals with higher MAP scores had higher N1 peak amplitude to music deviants. A similar but weaker relationship was also present between MAP Idasanutlin solubility dmso scores and N1 to voice deviants. A relationship between N1 and either the age at onset of training or the duration of training was not significant. In part this may be due to the fact that we tested amateur musicians, who on average started their training later than what would be typical for professional musicians. Overall, however, reports of correlation between either the age at the onset of musical training or the duration Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) of such training and the enhancement of early ERP responses are not consistent (e.g. Pantev et al., 1998; Shahin et al., 2003; Musacchia et al., 2007). Our evaluation of timbre encoding in musicians and non-musicians has its limitations. Our main task probed the ability of the two groups of participants to resist distraction

and did not measure overt timbre perception. Therefore, whether enhanced N1 peak amplitude to complex sounds in musicians actually translates into better timbre identification and/or discrimination requires future studies. Related to the above point is the fact that the design of our study required that we use only a small set of sounds to represent vocal and musical timbres. In contrast, studies of the FTPV component used a large range of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Future studies that use a larger set of timbre examples and focus on the FTPV component may help determine whether musicians’ neural encoding of voices as a perceptual category (compared with voices’ acoustic properties as in the current study) is superior to that in non-musicians. In summary, musicians showed an enhanced N1 ERP component not only to musical and vocal sounds but also to never before heard spectrally-rotated sounds.