Since CTX at higher levels (6 and 60 nM) caused adhesive hemocytes to enter the circulation, similar to octopamine-mediated hemocyte mobilization during bacterial infection [38], CTX’s effect on bacterial removal from larval hemocoel was examined.

Insects concomitantly injected with B. subtilis and CTX more extensively removed the bacteria from circulation than insects injected with bacteria in PBS ( Fig. 6A). Insects injected with 6 nM CTX significantly removed [30% (15.8–21.9) p<0.05] more bacteria than the controls, and 12 nM CTX significantly removed [15% (6.6–9.0) p<0.05] more B. subtilis than did PBS, but less than 6 nM CTX (p<0.05). Insects injected with 60 nM CTX removed the greatest number of bacteria [55% (26.4-32.8) p<0.05] compared to http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Dasatinib.html PBS-bacteria-injected larvae ( Fig. 6A). The lowest concentration of injected CTB (30 nM) had no effect on bacterial removal; however, subsequent concentrations

lowered circulating bacteria in a dose-dependent manner to levels significantly lower [64% (35.8–39.3) p<0.05] than the PBS groups ( Fig. 6A). High CTB concentrations removed bacteria much like that of CTX (p>0.05) indicating that CTB accounts for the higher CTX results Lumacaftor molecular weight further supporting an immunological role for CTB at higher concentrations. Increasing concentrations of the isolated A subunit, CTA had no effect on bacterial removal ( Fig. 6A). The ability of CTX to elevate adhesive hemocyte counts and enhance the removal of bacteria may indicate its influence on nodule formation independently of the bacteria. The amount of nodules in the hemocoel of insects injected with

CTX only was determined 24 h post-injection since nodules are more easily visible after having melanised by this time [59]. Nodule frequency significantly increased [41% (22.1–27.6) p<0.05] in larvae with 6 nM CTX, followed by a significant decrease [37% (17.8–24.6) p<0.05] by 12 nM. Nodulation increased in larvae receiving 60 nM CTX to levels similar to 6 nM (p>0.05; Fig. 6B). There was a significant negative correlation between the remaining circulating bacteria and the frequency of nodule-like structures from insects injected with CTX (r2=−0.95; p<0.05), suggesting CTX enhances bacterial removal by itself inducing acetylcholine nodule formation. That hemocytes from larvae injected with 6 nM CTX had impaired adhering ability to glass, but induced nodule formation, reflects the in vitro results wherein 1.2 nM (corrected for tissue dilution; see section 3.3) reduced hemocyte–glass adhesion but induced microaggregation. The impaired ability of hemocytes to adhere to glass at 6 nM CTX mimics lower levels of bacteria removed from circulation compared to 60 nM, despite similar levels of nodules in the hemocoel and in vitro microaggregate results. Higher nodule frequency at 12 and 60 nM CTX also reflects increased microaggregation observed in vitro (r2=0.95; p<0.05). The nodule-like structures found in CTX-injected insects ( Fig.

It is also important to provide a large amount of cells at the site of regeneration. For this purpose, PDL cell sheet technology has been developed and successfully regenerated both new bone and cementum connecting with collagen fibers in canine periodontal defect

models [29]. However, none of these cell transplantation models showed the complete click here regeneration of horizontally lost periodontal tissues. Therefore, periodontal tissue still remains one of the most difficult tissues to achieve complete regeneration because many clinical and biological variables may affect the regeneration process. Firstly, this tissue is always in contact with the outside environment of the oral KPT-330 order cavity, and is at risk of infection during the regeneration process. Secondly, several types of mechanical stresses are also loaded onto periodontal tissue: one is from occlusal forces and the other is the tension stress from gingiva and mucosal membranes, which disrupts horizontally resorbed periodontal tissue. As shown in Fig. 1, it may be difficult to overcome these environmental factors and induce complete periodontal regeneration without

the “golden” triad of cell/signaling molecule/scaffold for conventional regenerative medicine. It is important to maintain the space of horizontally lost tissues and protect regenerating tissues from infection and mechanical stresses. The last component of the tissue engineering MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit triad is the scaffold. Table 3 shows the scaffold materials used for growth factor therapy aimed at periodontal regeneration [30]. Polymeric scaffolds commonly have porous and biodegradable structures fabricated from natural/synthetic materials, and have been tailored to films, fibers, sheets, gels, and sponges [31]. Inorganic materials also have been used for periodontal regeneration

to specifically regenerate alveolar bone defects, including hydroxyapatite (HA) and calcium phosphates (CaP). CaP materials such as β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) have excellent properties including: (1) a similar composition to bone minerals; (2) the ability to form bone apatite-like materials or carbonate HA; (3) the ability to stimulate cells, leading to the formation of bone-CaP; and (4) osteoconductivity [32]. HA is the major mineral component (approx. 60%) of human hard tissues, and is often clinically applied to fill alveolar bone defects (shown in Table 1). HA can eliminate donor site morbidity, but can lead to granular migration and incomplete resorption, resulting in long-term difficulties [33]. β-TCP has been shown to be an osteoconductive material, allowing for bone growth onto the scaffold adjacent to bony surfaces in both animal and human studies [34] and [35], and has been clinically applied in combination with PDGF [36].

0%) were diagnosed with Sjögren’s syndrome [4]. These results demonstrated http://www.selleckchem.com/products/dinaciclib-sch727965.html that the causes of dry mouth were various, and that Sjögren’s syndrome existed in less than 10% of the dry mouth cases, thus, the importance of examinations for the diagnosis was emphasized. Xerostomia is defined as a subjective complaint of dry mouth [5], and is caused by hyposalivation and/or hyper-evaporation of saliva. Hyposalivation

occurs due to various causes, such as Sjögren’s syndrome, radiation therapy to the head and neck, the use of medications, and diabetes mellitus [5]. Evaporation of saliva is mainly caused by mouth opening or mouth breathing, which often occurs during the night without an apparent decrease in the salivary flow. Evaporation occurs even in the Sjögren’s syndrome patients. Thus, for the management of xerostomina in those with Sjögren’s syndrome, it is important not only to promote saliva secretion and moisturize the oral mucosa, but also to prevent the evaporation of saliva. Saliva production and secretion is vital for the maintenance of Erastin supplier oral health and oral function. Common complications include rampant dental

caries, candidiasis, mucosal atrophy and burning, difficulty in denture retention and use, compromised speech and swallowing, and reduced or altered taste sensation [6]. The management of oral candidiasis has been recognized to be Vitamin B12 an especially important issue in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. This will be discussed as one of the topics, in addition to the management of dry mouth, in this review. The management of dry mouth has included using air humidifiers, rinsing the mouth with water or mouthwash, the application of a salivary substitute and administration

of secretagogues. A large number of systemic agents have been proposed as secretagogues, but only a few have shown consistent salivary enhancing properties in well-designed, controlled trials [7]. There are currently three secretagogues suitable for alleviation of dry mouth in Sjögren’s syndrome patients in Japan; cevimeline hydrochloride hydrate (cevimeline), pilocarpine hydrochloride, and anetholtrithione. Recently, the usefulness of a reservoir bite guard [8] and an intraoral lubricating device [9], [10] and [11] were reported to deliver a saliva substitute to the oral cavity for hyposalivation patients. We previously applied a simple bite guard for sleep-related xerostomia [12], and based on the results of this study, the bite guard is expected to alleviate dry mouth in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. Cevimeline, which is an agonist of muscarinic types 1 and 3 receptors [13], has shown clinical efficacy in increasing saliva production and improving the subjective perception of oral dryness in Sjögren’s syndrome patients [14] and [15].

0 ppm which, due to its low field resonance, corresponds to substituted CH2-OH (C-5 of Araf units). Among arabinans present in primary cell walls of plants, linear (1 → 5)-α-l-arabinans are less frequent than branched ones. Linear (1 → 5)-α-l-arabinans have been encountered only in apple juice (Churms et al., 1983) and in seeds of Schizolobium parahybae, Cassia fastuosa and Chenopodium quinoa ( Cordeiro et al., 2012 and Petkowicz et al., 1998). Monosaccharide analysis of fraction STK revealed rhamnose (4.3%), arabinose (18.0%), xylose (24.0%), galactose (14.3%) and glucose (32.1%). The content of uronic acids was 7.3%. Then, fraction STK

was treated with α-amylase and submitted to purification by ultrafiltration through a membrane with a cut-off of 300 kDa selleck chemical (Fig. 1B), giving retained (fraction STK-300R) and eluted fraction (STK-300E). Fraction STK-300R showed the presence of arabinose (20.0%), xylose (72.0%), galactose (0.5%) and uronic acid (7.5%), indicating the presence of an acidic heteroxylan. The homogeneity of this fraction was determined by high performance steric exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), which Cilengitide solubility dmso gave rise to a main peak (peak I) and two other peaks of smaller intensities (peaks II and III, Fig. 3A). In order to obtain a homogeneous fraction, STK-300R was further submitted to closed dialysis (in bag with cut-off of 1000 kDa, Fig. 1B) against

distilled water (for Cediranib (AZD2171) 48 h), giving rise to eluted (STK-1000E) and retained fractions (STK-1000R). The monosaccharide analysis of these fractions indicated similar composition, with a molar ratio for arabinose/xylose/galactose/uronic acid of 10.6:75.4:1.8:12.0 and 12.4:73.6:2.7:11.3 for fractions STK-1000E and STK-1000R, respectively. Moreover, 13C NMR analysis demonstrated that they have similar spectra, indicating the presence of polysaccharides with similar structure but different molar mass. Thus, only fraction STK-1000R, which was obtained in higher yield, was further analyzed. In order to investigate the identity of the uronic

acid present, fraction STK-1000R was carboxy-reduced and submitted to monosaccharide analysis by GC–MS. This revealed the presence of arabinose (9.8%), xylose (75.0%), galactose (2.5%), glucose (5.1%) and 4-O-methyl-glucose (7.6%), indicating that the uronic acid content was represented by glucuronic acid and its 4-O-methyl-derivative. Methylation analysis of carboxy-reduced STK-1000R is reported in Table 1. The results suggested a polysaccharide with (1 → 4)-linked Xylp residues in the backbone, carrying a low proportion of branching (∼20%), exclusively in O-2 (due to the presence of a 3-O-methyl-xyl-ol-acetate derivative). The side-chains are formed by (1 → 5)-linked Araf residues and (1 → 4)-linked GlcpA residues. The remaining monosaccharides were found only as non-reducing end units: Araf, Arap, Galp, GlcpA and 4-O-Me-GlcpA.

The enzyme was completely inhibited by iron chloride, silver nitrate and SDS in both concentrations tested. In the assay conditions, the denaturing action of SDS probably affected the integrity of the enzyme tridimensional structure which is fundamental for its catalytic activity. Inhibition caused by SDS (1 and 10 mM) was also demonstrated by Li, Jiang, Fan, and Liu (2012) for cloned β-glucosidase using metagenomic DNA from mangrove EPZ6438 soil. D. hansenii UFV-1 β-glucosidase activity was greatly increased by β-mercaptoethanol,

glucose, urea and aluminium chlorid at both concentrations tested. Non-inhibition by EDTA implies that divalent cations are not essential to enzyme activity ( Chen, Li, & Zong, 2012b) and it is not a metalloenzyme. Many works reported that EDTA does not inhibit β-glucosidases as in the case of Pyrococcus furiosus β-glucosidase that was considered metal-independent ( Yeom et al., 2012). β-Mercaptoethanol was the agent which best promoted enzyme activation in both final concentrations tested. The activation by this PARP inhibitor reducing agent can be explained

by the fact that some reduced chemical ligations in the enzyme structure are favourable for the catalytic activity. Calcium and magnesium have a stimulatory effect on D. hansenii UFV-1 β-glucosidase. It has been reported that these two ions are enhancers of β-glucosidase activity ( Oyekola, Ngesi, & Whiteley, 2007). Glucose was found to be a competitive inhibitor of D. hansenii UFV-1 β-glucosidase and the Ki value was 11.36 mM. In general, β-glucosidases are inhibited

by glucose and this inhibition is competitive ( Yang et al., 2004). Soy molasses is a by-product generated in the production of soy protein concentrate, in which isoflavones and other phytochemicals are enriched Etomidate (Hosny & Rosazza, 1999). This by-product in the soy industry is used as an inexpensive animal feed, but the processing and use of soy molasses as a functional food has been suggested (Najafpour & Shan, 2003). The potential of D. hansenii UFV-1 intracellular β-glucosidase to hydrolyze isoflavones in soy molasses to their aglycon forms was demonstrated for the free β-glucosidase and the alginate immobilised cells containing this enzyme ( Table 4). Prior to hydrolysis, glucoside isoflavones were predominant in the soy molasses, representing approximately 80%, where aglycones made up about 10%. After 2 h of treatment with the free or immobilised β-glucosidase the isoflavone glucosides were almost completely hydrolyzed after which there remained about 3% of these compounds. There was no change in the amounts of isoflavone glucosides and aglycones after 4 or 8 h of enzymatic treatment of soy molasses compared to the assay after 2 h of hydrolysis (data not shown). This indicates that a short incubation period is preferred over a prolonged incubation with the free or immobilised enzyme.

Ferreyra et al. (2007) also observed higher antioxidant activity during the initial maturation stages of strawberry cv. Selva. The reduction in antioxidant capacity can be in part explained by the decrease in caffeic acid levels; since this phenolic acid has been shown to possess high antioxidant potential ( Marinova & Yanishlieva, 1992). In addition, Tabart, Kevers, Pincemail, Defraigne, and Dommes (2009) Selleck RO4929097 observed a higher antioxidant potential from catechins, such as gallocatechin and epigallocatechin, in comparison to other phenolic compounds or ascorbic acid. Enzymes corresponding to ADH and AAT act in

a coordinated process in the reduction of aldehydes to alcohols, as well as the transfer of an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA and an acyl group from acyl-CoA to the corresponding alcohols during the biosynthesis of ester volatiles ( Aharoni et al., 2000). Ethyl butanoate, ethyl acetate, and butyl acetate relative content increased during fruit development ( Fig. 3). The increase in the levels of ester volatiles was expected since the aroma of fruit tends to be enhanced during maturation ( Folta and Davis, 2006 and Pérez et al., 1996). Among other volatiles, methyl butanoate, 2-methyl butyl acetate, and hexyl acetate presented less variation throughout development. In agreement Baf-A1 with Pérez et al. (1996) who observed an increase in AAT enzyme activity in strawberry cv. Oso Grande and Tudla

during a maturation stage corresponding to stage 4 of the current experiment, the increase in ester production was accompanied by an increase in ADH and AAT transcript accumulation ( Fig. 2E and F). Collectively, results of the present study provide supporting evidence of a synchrony between transcription

and physiological responses nearly related to sensorial and nutritional changes in strawberry. In addition, these genes involved in cell wall polysaccharides solubilisation (Exp, PL, PME, PG, β-Gal), biosynthesis of phenolic compounds (PAL, ANS), ascorbic acid (LGalDH, GLDH) and aromas (ADH, AAT), emerge as candidate markers for postharvest studies associated with nutritional and sensorial quality changes. To CAPES and CNPq for financial support. “
“The use of propolis is ancient in traditional medicine dating back at least to 300 BC (Ghisalberti, 1979). Today, this resinous bee product continues to be used worldwide, and a broad spectrum of biological activities for propolis has been reported, including anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, and antifungal activities (Burdok, 1998 and Marcucci, 1995). The biological effect of propolis is attributed to its natural bioactive chemicals, such as polyphenols, flavonoid aglycones, phenolic acid and their esters, caffeic acid and their esters and phenolic aldehydes and ketones (Orsˇolic & Basˇic, 2003). Recently, attention is being focused on the anti-cancer activity of propolis.

For validation purposes, five liver extracts with low recoveries were diluted up to 1000 times and analyzed on a Xevo TQ-S mass spectrometer (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA), which is a more sensitive instrument compared to the Quattro Premier selleck screening library XE. The recoveries of 13C4-PFOS increased from 10–44% to 36–80% in the × 100 and × 1000 diluted samples (Fig. S1, Supplementary data). To compare PFOS concentrations in undiluted (u) and diluted (d) extracts, the mean normalized difference (%) was calculated using the formula: ((u − d) / ((u + d) / 2) × 100). The calculated concentrations

of all the diluted extracts, except for one sample, were well in range with the initial concentrations (average mean normalized difference of 18%). Consequently, reliable results can be produced even when recovery rate is low since the internal standard and the native compound are equally suppressed. Recoveries, method reproducibility and method detection limits (MDL) for all samples are presented

in Table S1, Supplementary data. One milliliter of ultra pure water was used as procedural blanks and extracted in the same way as the real samples. The MDL was defined as the mean concentration in the procedural blanks plus three standard deviations, and the limit of detection (LOD) for individual samples was calculated as three times the noise level. Overall good recoveries (> 50%) of 13C-PFOS and 13C-PFOA were measured for the samples after the replacement of the recovery standard 7H-PFHPA

to 13C8-PFOS and 13C8-PFOA in the middle of the project. One two year old mink Volasertib clinical trial caught in autumn in the G area was excluded due to non-reproducible results of the diluted extracts. Using the general linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA, version 9.02.01), a multiple regression model with the concentrations Astemizole of PFHxS, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA or PFUnDA as dependent variable and the sample area, sample season, age, body condition, year (of capture) and body weight as independent variables were elaborated on. PFBS, PFOA, PFDoDA and PFTrDA were excluded from this model since the concentrations were consistently low (< 17 ng/g). The model was fitted manually, starting with all variables in the model. Variables that were unsignificant (p > 0.05) for all dependent variables were removed. Relevant interactions between the effects were tested but none were included in the model due to insignificance or small sample size. The variable age was tested in several ways (different assignments into categories and numerical approaches), but had no significant effect. Area and season were the only variables that had a significant effect and were therefore the only variables kept in the final model: Y=μ+AREA+SEASON+ERROR.Y=μ+AREA+SEASON+ERROR.

No specific permits were required for the described field studies. Generalized linear models were used to analyze the relationship between the tree attributes and (1) the total number of lichen species on each tree, (2) the number of species of conservation concern on each tree (which in this study included red-listed species (Gärdenfors 2010) and indicator species, the latter used to indicate forests of high conservation value in conservation assessments; (Nitare ABT-888 cell line 2000), (3) presence or absence on each tree of the four most frequently occurring

lichen species of conservation concern (Collema furfuraceum (Arnold) Du Rietz, Lecanora impudens Degel., Leptogium saturninum (Dicks.) Nyl., and Lobaria pulmonaria L. Hoffm. Species number (1 and 2 above) was modeled with a Poisson distribution and with an identity link function

to the explanatory variables (tree attributes), while presence or absence of individual species was modeled with a binomial distribution and a logit link function (i.e. logistic regression). The choice of distributions and link functions was based on their fit with the data. Prior to analysis, all explanatory variables were first checked for strong correlations (here >0.6 in a bivariate plot). Where correlations were present, we excluded those variables from further analysis that we judged were of least practical use for identifying retention selleck kinase inhibitor trees in the field. Tree age, size of branches, and size and width of tree crown were thus excluded due to their strong correlation with bark crevices (tree age) and tree diameter (size of branches and size and width Resveratrol of crown). We detected no overdispersion in the Poisson-modeled data. We used model-averaging to derive parameter estimates for each explanatory variable (see tree attributes in Table 2), to overcome the problem with model selection uncertainty. All possible subsets of models were thus constructed (i.e. 256 models) and we used the second-order Akaike information criterion AICC (which penalizes models with many explanatory variables) to calculate relative likelihoods and Akaike weights for all models (Burnham and Anderson 2002). Akaike weights can be interpreted as the probability that each model

is the best model, given the data and set of considered candidate models. Model-averaged parameter estimates and associated standard errors and confidence intervals were calculated for all parameters across the models with a ΔAICC ⩽ 2 (on average 12 models), which are models that can be said to have “substantial support” (Burnham and Anderson, 2002 and Grueber et al., 2011). To reduce bias in parameter estimates, we denoted the estimate of parameters not included in any given model within the candidate set to zero and thus averaged parameter estimates over all models, not just those containing the parameter (Burnham and Anderson, 2002 and Lukacs et al., 2010). The statistical software package Statistica was used for all modeling (StatSoft 2011).

Globally, seed production of boreal and temperate trees, and of fast growing tropical and subtropical trees, often seems to meet or exceed demand for tree planting. The germplasm of many of these tree species is largely obtained from improved seed sources. In the case of tropical hardwoods, however, global demand is generally higher than supply from tested or improved seed sources, and seed is collected instead from untested and poorly documented sources. The seed of agroforestry trees are often harvested and deployed locally, making it difficult to evaluate the global situation. Many countries still encounter problems related to the quantity and quality of forest reproductive material

(FAO, 2014). This is often due to the lack of well-functioning national seed production and delivery systems that would reach all the diverse users of tree germplasm. DAPT ic50 Long-term investments in establishing and maintaining these systems are essential inputs to the development of the forestry sector, especially in developing countries. Governments and their agencies should develop regulatory frameworks, guidelines and training programmes to enable more active participation of the private sector in seed production and distribution (Graudal and Lillesø, 2007). Transfers of tree germplasm involve some risks of spreading pests and diseases, of introducing

invasive tree species and of polluting the genetic make-up of existing tree populations. Hydroxychloroquine Many of these risks have been underestimated in the past, but they are now increasingly analysed, and measures are being taken to minimize them while transferring germplasm. Risks should be considered in the context of the large benefits that people receive worldwide from transferred tree germplasm (these benefits need better measuring; Dawson et al., 2014, this special issue). Reconstructions of the historical movements of forest pathogens indicate that the risk of spreading pests and diseases while transferring seed is considerably lower than when moving living plants and Thiamine-diphosphate kinase other substrates (Liebhold

et al., 2012 and Santini et al., 2013). Today, while phytosanitary regulations are rightly in place to control the transfer of tree germplasm, they are in our view unfortunately sometimes applied beyond their original purpose, limiting R&D activities. Of the nearly 360 tree species invasive in some part of the world (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011), most have been introduced for horticultural purposes. However, several tree species used for forestry have also become invasive, so there is a need to consider weediness potential carefully. Although germplasm transfers can cause genetic pollution, hybridisation and introgression between new and existing stock also create opportunities, as novel genetic combinations can enhance the adaptation of tree populations to climate change (see Alfaro et al., 2014, this special issue).

1B). Therefore, the ginsenoside Rg3-enriched fraction obtained from DIAION HP20 column of the crude ginseng extract contained 80–90 mg/g freeze-dried powder. This yield corresponded to an ∼80 times greater concentration of ginsenoside Rg3 determined in the crude ginseng extract. Nevertheless, as shown in Fig. 1B, ginseol k-g3 also contained other ginsenosides such as Rk1 and Rg5 in the following compositions: 41.68 mg/g and 75.04 mg/g, respectively. The effects of single and repeated treatment of ginseol k-g3 at various doses (12.5 mg/kg, 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) on locomotor activity of mice were examined. The effects

of RG (100 mg/kg), Rg3 (20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg) and donezepil (5 mg/kg) were also evaluated for comparison. As shown in Fig. 2A, www.selleckchem.com/products/ON-01910.html single treatment with the four doses of ginseol k-g3 did not affect locomotor activity of mice (p > 0.05). Furthermore, ginseol k-g3 did not affect rearing frequency of mice (p > 0.05, Fig. 2B). It was also notable that RG, the two doses of Rg3, as well as the single dose of donezepil did not alter ambulatory and stereotypic behaviors of mice ( Fig. 2A and B). Meanwhile, no differential locomotor activities were observed in both saline- and ginseol k-g3-treated mice during Day3 and Day 6 of drug administration. As 5-FU concentration shown in Fig. 2C, the total moved distance and rearing frequency ( Fig. 2D) were similar between control

and ginseol k-g3-treated mice, and also in mice treated with RG and Rg3. Altogether, these results indicate that ginseol k-g3 does not cause sedation upon single or repeated administration. These findings also demonstrate that ginseol k-g3 does not impair motor function or exploratory activity. Spontaneous alternation behavior determined using the Y-maze test has been viewed as an indicator of spatial

short-term memory [34]. In this test, mice must remember the arm most recently entered in order to alternate arm choice. Furthermore, treatment with scopolamine has been demonstrated to impair spontaneous alternation behavior in animal models [21]. As shown in Fig. 3A, spontaneous alternation behavior in scopolamine-treated mice was significantly lower than in mice treated with vehicle (p < 0.01). C59 One-way ANOVA showed lack of effect of all doses of ginseol k-g3 in improving scopolamine-induced reduction of spontaneous alternation in mice (p > 0.05). RG and the two doses of Rg3 also failed to enhance spontaneous alternation behavior in scopolamine-treated mice. In contrast, donezepil significantly reversed the cognitive deficit induced by scopolamine in the Y-maze task [t (18) = 4.71, p < 0.001]. Together, these results suggest that that ginseol k-g3, RG and Rg3 do not influence short-term or working memory. Meanwhile, as shown in Fig. 3B, no significant differences were observed among experimental groups in the number of arm entries. This result corroborates the observation that ginseol k-g3 does not affect general locomotor activity of mice.