Results: Bladder outlet obstruction led to a significant increase in bladder E7080 mw weight, oxidative stress markers and proinflammatory cytokine levels. Eviprostat significantly suppressed these increases without affecting bladder weight. Histological analysis showed increased detrusor muscle hypertrophy and increased numbers of Collagen fibers with accompanying inflammatory infiltration in the bladder of vehicle treated bladder outlet obstruction animals. Eviprostat treatment was associated with suppression of these changes. Decreased responses of obstructed bladder strips

to electrical stimulation and KCl were ameliorated by Eviprostat treatment.

Conclusions: Eviprostat mediated decrease of the increased oxidative stress and bladder inflammation caused by bladder outlet obstruction may contribute to the protection of bladder function.”
“Engineered find more xylose-metabolizing Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells grown on xylose show increased expression

of YMR315W at both the mRNA and protein levels. Additionally, the YMR315W promoter contains a putative binding site for the transcription factor Stb5p, which has been shown to regulate genes involved in NADPH production such as ZWF1, GND1 and GND2. We hypothesized that Ymr315wp, a conserved protein of unknown function, is an additional source of NADPH in wild-type cells. In this study, we purified histidine-tagged enzyme and determined that Ymr315wp is an NADP(H)specific oxidoreductase. We also showed that YMR315W transcription is regulated by Stb5p in response to diamide induced NADPH depletion. Overexpression of Ymr315wp in BY4727 cells resulted in elevated NADPH levels and increased resistance to diamide. However, learn more the presence of Ymr315wp in cells lacking the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway resulted in decreased NADPH levels and increased diamide sensitivity. These results suggest that in BY4727 cells Ymr315wp contributes to NADPH production as an alternative source of NADPH.”
“The optimization of the conversion of ginseng saponin glycosides to 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg(3)

by enzymatic transformation was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM) based on a 2(3) factorial central composite design. The production of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg(3) using several commercial enzymes indicated that the enzyme Cellulase-12T was the most efficient at producing 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg(3). To optimize the enzymatic production of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg(3), response surface methodology was applied to determine the ideal amount of white ginseng extract, Cellulase-12T and reaction time. These results indicate that white ginseng extract (1.67%) treated with Celluase-12T (3.67%) for 72 hours had 4 times the quantity of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg(3) compared to commercial white ginseng extract.”
“Isopropanolysis reactions were performed using triglycerides with immobilized lipase in a solvent-free environment.

We used a novel point-of-care genetic test to identify carriers of the CYP2C19*2 allele and aimed to assess a pharmacogenetic approach to dual antiplatelet treatment after PCI.

Methods Between Aug 26, 2010, and July 7, 2011, 200 patients were enrolled into our prospective, randomised, proof-of-concept study. Patients undergoing PCI for acute coronary syndrome or stable angina were randomly assigned to rapid point-of-care genotyping or to standard treatment. Individuals in the rapid genotyping group were screened for the CYP2C19*2

allele. Carriers were given 10 mg prasugrel daily, and non-carriers and patients in the standard treatment group were given 75 mg clopidogrel daily. The primary endpoint was the proportion of CYP2C19*2 selleck screening library carriers with high on-treatment platelet reactivity (P2Y12 reactivity unit [PRU] value of more than 234) after 1 week of dual antiplatelet treatment, which is a marker associated with increased adverse cardiovascular events. Interventional cardiologists and data analysts were masked to genetic status and treatment. Patients were not masked to

treatment allocation. All analyses were by intention to treat. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01184300.

Findings After randomisation, 187 patients completed follow-up (91 rapid genotyping group, 96 standard treatment). 23 individuals in each group carried at least one CYP2C19*2 allele. None of the 23 carriers in the rapid genotyping group had a PRU value of more than 234 at day 7, compared with seven (30%) given standard treatment (p=0.0092). The point-of-care genetic test had a this website sensitivity of 100% (95% CI 92.3-100) and a specificity of 99.3% (96.3-100).

Interpretation

Point-of-care genetic testing after PCI can be done effectively at the bedside and treatment of identified CYP2C19*2 carriers with prasugrel can reduce high on-treatment platelet reactivity.”
“Objective: To examine whether dysregulation MLN2238 of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis associated with disadvantaged social position in working populations also occurs in older age groups. Methods: This study examines the association of several indicators of social position with two measures of cortisol secretion, a product of the HPA axis. We examined the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and slope of the decline in cortisol secretion across the day. We examine whether the association is mediated by behavioral, psychosocial, and biological factors in 3992 participants of phase 7 (2002-2004) of the Whitehall 11 study, who provided six salivary cortisol samples across the day. Results: In this older cohort (mean age = 61 years; range = 50-74 years), lowest social position (assessed by current or previous occupational grade and wealth) was associated with a flatter slope in the decline in cortisol secretion.

We reconstructed the lesions onto a sagittal map from the Talairach and Tournoux atlas using the distance along the callosal line and the distance above the upper surface of the corpus callosum.

RESULTS: The location of neuronal

activity distinguished gray and white selleck chemicals llc matter and was useful in delineating the upper and lower cortical banks of the cingulate gyrus, the cingulate bundle, and the corpus callosum. This information was used to place the lesions. Lesions typically were 6 to 8 mm in diameter on T2-weighted MRI scans. The inferior margins were along the corpus callosum from c = 16 to c = 38. Four of 15 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder had a documented decrease of more than 35% on the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale, but only one patient had a sustained benefit for more than 1 year.

CONCLUSION: Microelectrode recording is useful for lesion placement. Our system for reporting location in anterior cingulate cortex normalizes for differences in callosal morphometry. These techniques may aid future study.”
“Telomeres are the repeated sequences at the chromosome ends which undergo shortening with cell division. The telomere shortening of the peripheral leukocytes is also facilitated by enhanced oxidative stress in various kinds of disease including ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, apoplexy, and Alzheimer’s disease. Telomere shortening in Parkinson’s disease (PD) has not yet been reported. The pathogenesis

for PD is also regarded to be associated with oxidative stress. We investigated 28 Japanese male FG-4592 research buy PD patients ages 47-69. Although IPI-549 datasheet we could not find a statistical difference in the mean telomere length of peripheral leukocytes between the PD patients and the control participants, we found the mean telomere lengths to be shorter than 5 kb in only the PD patients and a significant PD-associated decrease in the telomeres with a length ranging from 23.1 to 9.4 kb in the patients in their 50s and 60s. These observations suggest that telomere shortening is accelerated in PD patients in comparison to the normal population.”
“OBJECTIVE:

Because of the irreversibility of lesioning procedures and their possible side effects, we studied the efficacy of replacing bilateral anterior capsulotomy with chronic electrical capsular stimulation in patients with severe, long-standing, treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder.

METHODS: We stereotactically implanted quadripolar electrodes in both anterior limbs of the internal capsules into six patients with severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatrists and psychologists performed a double-blind clinical assessment. A blinded random crossover design was used to assess four of those patients, who underwent continuous stimulation thereafter.

RESULTS: The psychiatrist-rated Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale score was lower in the stimulation-on condition (mean, 19.8 +/- 8.0) than in the postoperative stimulator-off condition (mean, 32.3 +/- 3.

Thus, the current study tested the hypothesis that CoQ10 levels in the serum and/or parietal cortex

are decreased in statin treated dogs and are associated with poorer cognition. Six aged beagles (>8 learn more years) were administered 80 mg/day of atorvastatin for 14.5 months and compared with placebo-treated animals. As predicted, serum CoQ10 was significantly lower in statin-treated dogs. Parietal cortex CoQ10 was not different between the two groups. However, poorer cognition was correlated with lower parietal cortex CoQ10. This study in dogs suggests that serum CoQ10 is reduced with atorvastatin treatment. CoQ10 levels in brain may BE linked to impaired cognition in response to atorvastatin, in agreement with previous reports that statins may have a negative impact on

cognition in the elderly. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland SP600125 concentration Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: The prostate cancer risk calculator from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial estimates the risk of positive biopsy and 1 containing high grade disease (Gleason score 7 or greater) based on prostate specific antigen, digital rectal examination, family history, race and prior negative biopsy. Since data used to create the calculator came from an unreferred population that underwent mainly sextant biopsy, to our knowledge its usefulness in the contemporary urology practice is unknown.

Materials and Methods: We performed the same multivariate logistic regression used to derive the prostate cancer risk calculator MMP inhibitor in a cohort of men from the Stanford Prostate Needle Biopsy Database who underwent initial prostate needle biopsy using an extended 12-core scheme.

Results: Our predictions of overall prostate cancer risk did not differ significantly from those of the calculator. Prostate specific antigen, abnormal digital rectal examination and family history were independent risk factors. However, our model predicted a much greater risk of high grade disease than the prostate cancer risk calculator. Prostate specific antigen, abnormal digital rectal examination

and age were independent risk factors for high grade disease.

Conclusions: The difference between our estimated risk of high grade prostate cancer and that of the prostate cancer risk calculator can be potentially explained by 1) differences between the cohorts (referred vs unreferred) or 2) the difference in grading, ie grading accuracy due to the difference in biopsy schemes or to temporally related grade shifts. Caution should be used when applying the prostate cancer risk calculator to counsel patients referred for suspicion of prostate cancer since it underestimates the risk of high grade disease.”
“The purpose of this study was to examine the postural control in children with strabismus before and after eye surgery. Control of posture is a complex multi-sensorial process relying on visual, vestibular and proprioceptive systems.

Event-Related Potential (ERP) studies of episodic memory have identified a robust neural correlate of recollection-the left parietal old/new effect-that has been widely observed during recognition memory tests. This left parietal old/new effect is believed to provide an index of generic cognitive operations related to recollection; however, it has recently been suggested that the neural correlate of recollection observed when faces are used as retrieval cues has an anterior scalp distribution, raising the possibility that

faces are recollected differently from other types of information. To investigate this possibility, we directly click here compared neural activity associated with remember responses for correctly recognized face and name retrieval

cues. Compound face-name stimuli were studied, Citarinostat clinical trial and at test either a face or a name was presented alone. Participants discriminated studied from unstudied stimuli, and made a remember/familiar decision for stimuli judged ‘old’. Remembering faces was associated with anterior (500-700 ms) and late right frontal old/new effects (700-900 ms), whereas remembering names elicited mid frontal (300-500 ms) and left parietal (500-700 ms) effects. These findings demonstrate that when directly compared, with reference to common episodes, distinct cognitive operations are associated with remembering faces and names. We discuss whether faces can be remembered in the absence of recollection, or whether there may be more than one way of retrieving episodic context. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The analysis of the Acanthamoeba Ulixertinib mw polyphaga mimivirus genome revealed the first virus-encoded nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDK), an enzyme that is central to the synthesis of RNA and DNA, ubiquitous in cellular organisms, and well conserved among the three domains of life. In contrast with the broad specificity of cellular NDKs for all types of ribo- and deoxyribonucleotides, the mimivirus enzyme exhibits a strongly preferential affinity for deoxypyrimidines. In order to elucidate the molecular

basis of this unique substrate specificity, we determined the three-dimensional (3D) structure of the Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus NDK alone and in complex with various nucleotides. As predicted from a sequence comparison with cellular NDKs, the 3D structure of the mimivirus enzyme exhibits a shorter Kpn loop, previously recognized as a main feature of the NDK active site. The structure of the viral enzyme in complex with various nucleotides also pinpointed two residue changes, both located near the active site and specific to the viral NDK, which could explain its stronger affinity for deoxynucleotides and pyrimidine nucleotides. The role of these residues was explored by building a set of viral NDK variants, assaying their enzymatic activities, and determining their 3D structures in complex with various nucleotides.

Little is known about Akt inhibitor the metabolism of lipids and function of lipases in CLL cells. Performing gene expression profiling including B-cell receptor (BCR) stimulation of CLL cells in comparison to healthy donor CD5 + B cells, we found significant overexpression of lipases and phospholipases in CLL cells. In addition, we observed that the recently defined prognostic

factor lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is induced by stimulation of BCR in CLL cells but not in CD5 + normal B cells. CLL cellular lysates exhibited significantly higher lipase activity compared to healthy donor controls. Incubation of primary CLL cells (n = 26) with the lipase inhibitor orlistat resulted in induction of apoptosis, with a halfmaximal dose (IC(50)) of 2.35 mu M. In healthy B cells a significantly higher mean IC(50) of 148.5 mu M of

orlistat was observed, while no apoptosis was induced in healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs; P < 0.001). Orlistat-mediated cytotoxicity was decreased by BCR stimulation. Finally, the cytotoxic effects of orlistat on primary CLL cells were enhanced by the simultaneous incubation with fludarabine (P = 0.003). In summary, alterations of lipid metabolism are involved in CLL pathogenesis and might represent a novel therapeutic target in CLL.”
“In this open-label randomized clinical trial, HLA-identical sibling-matched hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) were transplanted (non-MSCs group, n = 15) or cotransplanted with mesenchymal BMS202 mouse stem cells (MSCs) (MSCs group, n = 10) in hematologic malignancy patients. The median number of MSCs infused was 3.4 x 10(5) kg(-1) (range, 0.3-15.3 x 10(5) kg(-1)). MSCs infusions were well tolerated. The median time to neutrophil engraftment (absolute neutrophil count

>0.5 x 10(9) l(-1)) was 16 days for MSCs group JIB04 manufacturer and 15 days for non-MSCs group. The median time to platelet engraftment (platelet count >50 x 10(9) l(-1)) was 30 and 27 days, respectively. Grades II-IV acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) was observed respectively, in one (11.1%) and eight (53.3%) evaluable patients. Chronic GVHD was found in one (14.3%) and four (28.6%) evaluable patients. The number of patients who relapsed were six (60.0%) and three (20.0%), and the 3-year disease-free survivals were 30.0 and 66.7%, respectively. Thus cotransplantation of MSCs and HSCs may prevent GVHD, but the relapse rate is obviously higher than the control group. We conclude that use of MSCs must be handled with extreme caution before a large-scale clinical trial is performed.”
“In T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) the cardiac homeobox gene NKX2-5 (at 5q35) is variously deregulated by regulatory elements coordinating with BCL11B (at 14q32.2), or the T-cell receptor gene TRD (at 14q11.2), respectively. NKX2-5 is normally expressed in developing spleen and heart, regulating fundamental processes, including differentiation and survival.

The strength of diffusional screening is also related to the number of capillaries within a villus.

Our measures of diffusional efficiency are shown to decrease as a function of the number of capillaries per villus. This low efficiency, high capillary number relationship supports our hypothesis that diffusional screening is present in this system. Oxygen transport per capillary is reduced when multiple capillaries

compete for diffusing oxygen. A complete picture of oxygen fluxes, capillary and villus areas is obtainable and presents an opportunity for future work. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Cross-presentation by dendritic cells (DCs) of exogenous antigens on MHC class I is important for the generation of immune responses to intracellular pathogens, as well as for maintenance of self tolerance. In mice, the CD8(+) DC lineage is specialised for this role. However, MEK162 concentration DCs of this lineage are not born with cross-presentation capacity. Several studies have demonstrated that it must be induced as a later developmental step selleckchem by cytokines such as granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), or by microbial products such as toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. Increased cross-presentation capacity is

thus induced in peripheral CD8 lineage DCs during inflammation or infection. However, this capacity is already fully developed in steady-state thymic CD8(+) DCs, in accordance with their role in the deletion of self-reactive developing T cells.”
“Disruption of blood vessels caused by a spinal cord injury leads to tissue hypoxia. This hypoxic condition reduces the survival of transplanted stem cells, consequentially decreasing the effectiveness of stem cell therapy. In this study, we investigated the correlation between angiogenesis and the survival of transplanted neural stem cells in a spinal cord injury model. Hypoxia-specific luciferase-expressing neural stem cells (EpoSV-Luc NSC) were used as a tool

for the detection of hypoxia caused by a spinal cord injury. In vivo, angiogenesis by cotransplantation LDC000067 of endothelial cells quickly recovered tissue hypoxia caused by a spinal cord injury. As a result, cotransplantation of endothelial cells improved the survival of neural stem cells transplanted into the injured spinal cord. NeuroReport 23:658-662 (C) 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health vertical bar Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.”
“In a novel approach based on the principles of dynamic systems theory, we analyzed the tracks of pigeons recorded with the help of miniaturized GPS recorders. Using the method of time lag embedding, we calculated the largest Lyapunov exponent to determine the system’s predictability and the correlation dimension to estimate the number of factors involved. A low Lyapunov exponent around 0.02, which proved to be rather constant over all calculations, indicates that the navigational process is almost deterministic.

A separate multivariable regression was performed for each outcome adjusting for all independently predictive preoperative and intraoperative risk factors.

Results: A total of 427 patients were identified and 76.8% of patients underwent open repair. The open repair groups

exhibited lower albumin levels and higher percentage of patients with preoperative hematocrit (Hct) <38% and need for preoperative ventilation. The requirement for preoperative blood transfusion was similar. Patients undergoing open repair had much higher intraoperative transfusion requirements (11.8 +/- 8.9 vs 4.2 +/- 6.0 red blood cell units, P < .001). After adjustment for preoperative mortality risk factors, the mortality risk was higher for open repair Versus EVAR (odds ratio 1.67, 95% confidence Angiogenesis inhibitor www.selleckchem.com/products/lonafarnib-sch66336.html interval [CI] 0.91-3.05, P = .096) but did not reach significance. After

Similar adjustment the composite morbidity odds ratio for open repair versus EVAR was 1.82 (95% CI 1.11-2.99, P = .018) and the pulmonary, adverse events odds ratio was 1.99 (95% CI 1.22-3.25, P = .006). Risks for the other outcomes were not significant.

Conclusions: Composite 30-day morbidity risk is lower after EVAR vs open repair of rAAA. Open repair is associated with increased transfusion requirements. Performance of EVAR in rAAA patients with favorable anatomy could potentially result in improved outcome as compared with open repair. (J Vasc Surg 2010;51:305-9.)”
“OBJECTIVE: find more The purpose of Clinical Problem Solving articles is to present management challenges to give practicing neurosurgeons insight into how field leaders address these dilemmas. This illustration is accompanied by a brief review of the literature on the topic.

PRESENTATION: The case of a 16-year-old boy presenting with headaches is presented. The patient is found to have a typical colloid cyst

at the foramen of Monro. Bilateral ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement had been performed as an initial treatment of the patient before presentation.

RESULTS: Surgeons experienced in open and endoscopic surgery discuss their individual approaches to colloid cysts, in the context of previous shunting, providing a varied perspective on the clinical challenges posed by these lesions.

CONCLUSION: Both open and endoscopic options remain viable for excision of a colloid cyst. Each has associated potential complications, as illustrated by the current case.”
“Objective: Patients undergoing repair of thoracoabdominal (TAA) or visceral aortic segment aneurysms typically require reconstruction of the renal arteries. The use of balloon expandable stents (BES) has been proposed as an alternative to endarterectomy or bypass for renal artery reconstruction (RAR) during open aortic aneurysm repair. We report technical aspects and long-term patency data for this method of right RAR during complex open aortic aneurysm repair.

These results provide additional evidence for the requirement for p80 in anogenital HPV LXH254 in vivo DNA replication and highlight the potential of E1-p80 interaction as a novel antiviral target.”
“Two-dimensional blue native/SDS-PAGE is widely applied to investigate native protein-protein interactions, particularly those within membrane multi-protein complexes. MS has enabled the application of this approach at the proteome scale, typically by analysis of picked protein spots. Here, we investigated the potential of using LC-MS/MS as an alternative for SDS-PAGE in blue native (BN) analysis of protein complexes.

By subjecting equal slices from BN gel lanes to label-free semi-quantitative LC-MS/MS, we determined an abundance profile for each protein across the BN gel, and used these profiles to identify potentially interacting proteins by protein correlation profiling. We demonstrate the feasibility of this approach by considering the oxidative phosphorylation complexes I-V in the native human embryonic kidney 293 mitocbondrial fraction, showing that the method is capable of detecting both the fully assembled complexes as well as assembly/turnover intermediates of complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase). Using protein correlation profiling with a profile for subunits NDUFS2, 3, 7 and 8 we identified multiple proteins possibly involved in the biogenesis of complex 1, including the recently

find more implicated chaperone C6ORF66 and a novel candidate, C3ORF60.”
“BACKGROUND: In transarterial embolization of anterior cranial fossa and tentorial dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF), acute angulation of the feeding artery off the internal carotid artery (ICA) may render stable distal catheterization and, therefore, successful transarterial treatment difficult. In some anatomic dispositions, following selection of the feeding artery, subsequent forward force may lead to prolapse of the microcatheter into the ICA rather than advancing it into either the ophthalmic artery or the meningohypophyseal trunk.

OBJECTIVE: We describe a technique that SN-38 facilitates stable positioning of the

microcatheter by using a nondetachable balloon to temporally block the ICA distal to the feeding artery to redirect the catheter into the feeder and to prevent the microcatheter from protruding into the parent artery.

METHODS: In 8 cases where routine superselective microcatheterization failed, a balloon was used to block the ICA distal to the feeding artery in an attempt to facilitate superselective microcatheterization. The balloon was inflated following selection of the feeding vessel with the microcatheter and was kept inflated while advancing the catheter.

RESULTS: Distal stable microcatheter positions could be obtained in all cases, which enabled us to treat the respective DAVFs with a liquid embolic agent.

The structural

details of this neutralizing epitope provide a starting point for the design of an immunogen capable of eliciting AP33-like antibodies.”
“In this study, we applied a quantitative proteomic approach, based on SILAC, to investigate the interactions of coronaviruses with the secretory pathway of the host cell, with the aim to identify host factors involved in coronavirus replication. Comparison of the protein profiles of Golgienriched fractions of cells that were either mock infected or infected with mouse hepatitis virus revealed the significant depletion or enrichment of 116 proteins. Although click here ribosomal/nucleic acid binding proteins were enriched in the Golgi-fractions of mouse hepatitis virus-infected cells, proteins annotated to localize to several organelles of the secretory pathway were overrepresented among the proteins that were depleted from these fractions upon infection. We hypothesized that proteins, of which the abundance or distribution is affected by infection, are likely to be involved in the virus life cycle. Indeed, depletion of a small subset of the affected proteins by using small interfering RNAs identified several host factors involved in coronavirus infection. Transfection of small interfering RNAs targeting either C11orf59 or Golgi apparatus glycoprotein 1 resulted

in increased virus replication, whereas depletion of vesicle-trafficking protein vesicle-trafficking Acalabrutinib chemical structure protein sec22b enhanced the release of infectious progeny virus. Overexpression of these proteins, on the other hand, had a negative effect on virus replication. Overall, our study shows that the SILAC approach is a suitable tool to study host-pathogen interactions and to identify host proteins involved in virus replication.”
“Hypoviruses Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV-1)/EP713, CHV-1/Euro7, and CHV-1/EP721, which infect the chestnut blight JQ-EZ-05 nmr fungus Cryphonectria parasitica, differ

in their degrees of virulence attenuation (hypovirulence), symptom expression, and viral RNA accumulation, even though they share between 90% and 99% amino acid sequence identity. In this report we examine whether this variability is influenced by interactions with the C. parasitica Dicer gene dcl2-dependent RNA-silencing antiviral defense response. The mild symptoms exhibited by strains infected with CHV-1/Euro7 and CHV-1/EP721 relative to those with severe hypovirus CHV-1/EP713 did not correlate with a higher induction of the RNA-silencing pathway. Rather, dcl2 transcripts accumulated to a higher level (similar to 8-fold) following infection by CHV-1/EP713 than following infection by CHV-1/Euro7 (1.2fold) or CHV-1/EP721 (1.4-fold). The differences in dcl2 transcript accumulation in response to CHV-1/EP713 and CHV-1/EP721 were unrelated to the suppressor of RNA silencing, p29, encoded by the two viruses.