“
“Gamma-aminobutyric acid-containing (GABAergic) interneurons play an important role in the function of the cerebral cortex. Through mostly inhibitory mechanisms, interneurons control hyperexcitability, and synchronize and shape the spatiotemporal dynamics of cortical activity underlying various Angiogenesis inhibitor brain functions. Their influence on cortical function is remarkably diverse, a reflection of the large variety of interneuronal populations that exist in the mammalian cortex. Research over the past few years has rapidly transformed our understanding of their mechanisms underlying the generation of different classes of interneurons. In this review, we summarize recent progress on this

process, progress which holds the promise of providing a rational framework for their classification, as well as means to understand their role in cortical processing. The cerebral cortex consists of two main classes of neurons, pyramidal

cells and interneurons, which respectively use glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as main neurotransmitters. In the adult cortex, pyramidal cells are excitatory while GABA-containing (GABAergic) interneurons are typically inhibitory. Increasing evidence suggests that disruption of the excitatory–inhibitory balance maintained by pyramidal cells and interneurons is linked to the etiology of several neurological disorders (Rubenstein & Merzenich, 2003; Dani et al., 2005; Levitt, 2005; Lewis et al., 2005). Conversely, genes associated with such disorders have been shown to influence the development of check details cortical interneurons (Erbel-Sieler et al.,

2004; Flames et al., 2007; Fazzari Aldol condensation et al., 2010; Wen et al., 2010). Thus, disruption of GABAergic inputs to pyramidal cells might represent a common pathophysiological mechanism underlying multiple neuropsychiatric conditions. Interneurons comprise ∼20–30% of the cortical neuronal population and are locally projecting cells that control and synchronize the output of pyramidal neurons. Interestingly, the influence of GABAergic interneurons on pyramidal cells is largely dependent on the subcellular location of their inputs, which varies among different interneuron subtypes. Despite years of research, however, it is still unclear how many different types of cortical interneurons actually exist. This is due, among other reasons, to the difficulties that are inherent to the task of defining what a cortical interneuron is (Ascoli et al., 2008). Despite some reservations, today it is largely accepted that distinct types of interneurons exist; they are defined by a constellation of neurochemical, anatomical and electrophysiological characteristics. Based on this definition, several major classes of interneurons have been identified, although many other types of interneurons are left out of this major classification.

2 : 0.7 : 6.6 : 1.8 : 0.5 : 68.6 : 4.7 : 15.9, as described previously (Eyngor et al., 2008). The purity of the EPS was determined by measuring the protein and endotoxin contents by conventional silver staining after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and by Limulus amebocyte lysate assay (BioWhittaker, Walkersville, MD), respectively. DNA or RNA contaminations were excluded by

measuring UV adsorption at 260 and 280 nm. The salmonid RTS11, a functional macrophage cell line (Ganassin & Bols, 1998; Brubacher et al., 2000), was a gift from Dr N. Bols (Waterloo, Canada). RTS11 cells were cultured at 18 °C in Leibovitz (L-15) medium (Gibco Laboratories, Grand Island, NY) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (Gibco Laboratories), l-glutamine (300 mg L−1), HEPES (1%), penicillin Ribociclib (100 μg mL−1), streptomycin (100 μg mL−1) and amphotericin B (0.25 μg mL−1). The cell line was subcultured every 3 weeks by dividing cells and conditioned medium evenly between two flasks, and adding an equal volume of fresh medium. Cells used in this study had been passaged between 15 and 25 times. For stimulation of RTS11 macrophages, cells were seeded at 5 × 106

cells per well in a six-well tissue culture-treated plate (Costar), in serum-free and Enzalutamide datasheet antibiotic-free L-15 medium. Cells were left undisturbed

at 18 °C for 48 h to allow for any manipulation-induced gene expression to return to constitutive levels. For infection assays with viable bacteria cells, RTS11 cells were infected with 20 μL of bacterial suspension (MOI of 100) for different time intervals. LPS (50 mg mL−1 of LPS 0127:B8 purchased from Sigma) stimulated cells PRKACG were used as positive controls. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)-stimulated macrophages were used as negative controls. Macrophages with medium alone served as controls for spontaneous cytokine release. At different time intervals (0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 24 h), cells were harvested from individual wells, aliquoted and kept frozen in liquid nitrogen until RNAs were extracted. All experiments were performed three times (in triplicates). For EPS stimulation assays, 20 μL of fresh medium containing EPS (50 mg mL−1) was added to each well. Positive and negative controls are the same as listed above. All cytokine induction mixtures were incubated at 18 °C and assessed at the intervals specified above. Experiments comparing cytokine production in response to the viable bacteria EPS were always run concurrently.

Stepwise forward selection was used to select independent predictors of the event occurrence, with 0.50 and 0.15 as P-values for entry into the model and being retained in the Estrogen antagonist model, respectively. Known recorded risk factors for the SNA events were forced into the model [25]. Thus, smoking status, diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidaemia were forced into the cardiovascular events model;

hyperlipidaemia, HBV and HBC coinfections and alcohol abuse were forced into the model for terminal liver conditions; and smoking status was forced into the non-AIDS malignancies model. All of the former factors were forced into the model that estimated risk for SNA as a composite outcome. In addition, the indicator of ever received antiretroviral treatment was always forced into the models because all the variables associated with antiretroviral treatment were defined as interactions; i.e. 0 or missing if never treated. The following variables were considered as potential predictors: race, mode of transmission, HIV infection history, immunological factors and exposure to antiretroviral treatment. Although age and gender

are known to be associated with most non-AIDS events, they were not included in the models find protocol because they were used as matching variables. As of February 2008, 6007 patients had been included in the LATINA retrospective cohort, with a mean of 3.2 years and a median of 2.5 years of follow-up. Of the 6007 patients, 30% were women and 21% had a history of AIDS-defining conditions before the baseline visit. The incidence of AIDS events was 4.7 per 100 person-years

of follow-up. A total of 130 patients had an SNA event (94 confirmed and 36 probable) and were defined as cases, with an incidence rate of 8.6 events per 1000 person-years (95% CI 7.2, 10.0). Twenty-eight of these patients (21%) were female. Forty patients (30.7%) had a cardiovascular condition [11 had an MI (five confirmed), 13 had cardiovascular disease requiring an invasive procedure and 16 had a stroke (nine confirmed); incidence of cardiovascular events: 2.2 events per 1000 person-years (95% CI 1.5, 2.9)]; 54 patients (41.5%) had liver failure/cirrhosis (34 confirmed) [incidence: 2.9 events per 1000 person-years (95% CI 2.1, 3.7)]; 35 patients (27%) had a non-AIDS-defining malignancy (34 confirmed) Amobarbital [incidence 1.9 events per 1000 person-years (95% CI 1.2, 2.5)] and two (1.5%) had terminal renal insufficiency (both confirmed). One patient experienced simultaneously a liver failure and a cardiovascular disease. The median time of follow-up until the index date for cases and controls was 1.42 and 2.45 years, respectively (P=0.12; univariate conditional logistic regression). Table 1 compares the general characteristics of all cases and controls. The frequency of injecting drug use was significantly higher in the cases (P=0.001), as were the frequencies of histories of some traditional risk factors such as HCV coinfection (P<0.

This should include AST (or ALT), platelet count and prothrombin time at least 2-weekly initially. Patients should be told to report symptoms such as anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain or jaundice immediately [124,125]. Epigastric pain, nausea and vomiting are common especially in the first 2–3 weeks after starting anti-tuberculosis therapy. If the patient GSK126 research buy has no evidence of hepatic disease and is unresponsive to symptomatic treatment, for instance with anti-emetics,

then they can: take medications with meals (except with doses under 600 mg rifampicin daily); food delays or decreases the absorption of isoniazid and rifampicin but the effect is moderate and of little clinical significance; Patients should avoid dividing doses or changing to alternative drugs if at all possible, although dividing the dose, for instance of pyrazinamide, can improve tolerability. The NRTIs ddI and d4T cause peripheral neuropathy and there is an additive toxicity of isoniazid when used with d4T [118,126]. In individuals already taking these antiretrovirals, alternatives should be found if possible. Pyridoxine 10 mg daily should be used in all patients receiving isoniazid. If peripheral neuropathy occurs the dose of pyridoxine can be increased up to 50 mg three times a day. d4T should not be used as part of a HAART regimen if concomitant

isoniazid is being administered. In patients on HAART coming from resource-poor countries where d4T is used widely in initial Thiamine-diphosphate kinase therapy, switching PARP inhibitor to an alternate nucleoside should be performed. Rashes are often mild/moderate and usually occur in the first 2 months of treatment. They should be managed in a similar way to the management of nevirapine hypersensitivity rashes. Mild rashes without mucosal involvement can be treated symptomatically. More widespread worsening rashes or those with systemic symptoms require all drug cessation, and on recovery careful drug reintroduction as per protocol (see Table 8). One compounding issue is that patients may have also

recently started cotrimoxazole or antivirals and so the offending drug can be difficult to track down. In HIV infection, malabsorption has been reported with all first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs, as well as ethionamide and cycloserine. Absorption may be decreased in patients with a low CD4 cell count because of HIV enteropathy or other HIV-related gut disease. Subtherapeutic plasma drug concentrations may cause treatment failure and drug resistance [127,128]. Although some studies show lower peak concentrations of rifampicin and ethambutol as well as a lower AUC compared with controls [129–133], there are other data suggesting that rifampicin is well absorbed in HIV-infected patients, including those with AIDS or diarrhoea [134]. There are few data showing a correlation of treatment failure with poor absorption [106]. There are few data showing that TDM results in improved outcomes, and the use of TDM in TB has been reviewed [135].

What is more important is the pre-deployment

education or orientation of each traveler with regards to the characteristics of the vector anopheles and the proper use of individual personnel protective equipment such as long-acting insect repellent lotion containing N,N-Diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET), its reapplication when needed, BIBW2992 solubility dmso and proper use of insecticide impregnated bed nets. Health education sessions are organized for servicepersons not only before leaving or upon arrival overseas but also just before returning home. It is unfortunately a well-known fact that disseminating information, even if it is of high quality, does not automatically lead to modification of risk behavior.9 Regular assessment of the impact of health education campaigns has, therefore, been implemented by the French Military Health Service to assess how the transmitted Panobinostat clinical trial message is perceived and if necessary adapt it to increase its effectiveness. The authors state they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“We report the case of an immunocompetent traveler returning from Morocco who presented with a giant splenic abscess, revealing an infection by Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis.

Salmonellae are an important cause of food-borne infections in returning travelers. In immunocompetent hosts Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi cause enteric fever whereas other Salmonellae are commonly diagnosed in returning travelers with diarrhea.1 These Salmonella usually cause self-limited gastroenteritis but many other sites may be involved, particularly in patients with preexistent disease.2 In addition,

invasive infections may occur in infants, adults over the age of 65, and patients with debilitating or underlying illnesses.3 We report an uncommon complication revealing a disseminated Salmonella enteritidis infection, in a young and immunocompetent traveler. A 17-year-old man was admitted to our hospital with high-grade fever, anorexia, nausea, and abdominal pain lasting for 8 days. This French native student had returned 1 month earlier from Morocco where he had been vacationing Inositol monophosphatase 1 for 5 weeks. He recalled symptoms of intermittent left abdominal and shoulder pain during the last 3 years, but denied any history of trauma. Eight days before admission, severe left upper abdominal and left shoulder pain appeared suddenly, together with nausea and high-grade fever. He initially received ofloxacin (200 mg bid) for 2 days and then co-amoxicillin (1 g tid) for 4 days without any improvement. On admission, the patient appeared ill and pale and complained of severe pain in the left upper abdominal quadrant. Physical examination revealed fever (39.2°C), tachycardia (pulse rate : 120/min), normal blood pressure, and a painful, large, and tender mass in the left upper abdominal quadrant. Laboratory tests revealed a white blood cell count at 20,000/mL (including 83% neutrophils).

The VSP-II variant found in V. cholerae O1 El Tor CIRS101 has a significant deletion compared with the other two variants presumably circulating among V. cholerae O1 El Tor Dabrafenib purchase strains: the seventh pandemic and the Peruvian VSP-II. Although its function remains to be elucidated, the CIRS101 VSP-II presence is clearly dominant in recent V. cholerae O1 isolates from two cholera-endemic sites of Bangladesh, but not in V. cholerae O139 isolated from those sites, the latter possessing the prototypical seventh pandemic VSP-II. These data are surprising, given that

in the endemic areas under study, V. cholerae O1 and O139 share the same environment and host population, but appear not to have exchanged this genomic island. In Bangladesh, by tracking VSP-II variants, we were able to detect a shift between ‘old’ and ‘new’ pandemic clones of V. cholerae O1 El Tor, based on the fact that a 1994 strain (V. cholerae O1 MJ1236) carries the prototypical seventh pandemic VSP-II, while those isolated during 2004–2007 carry the new CIRS101 variant. It is of paramount importance to know whether the same shift occurred in clinical V. cholerae isolates from Africa or South America to be able to determine whether this event is region specific. Absence in nonepidemic isolates of V. cholerae non-O1/O139 suggests that the CIRS101

VSP-II confers a selective advantage when in the human host, but not when in the aquatic environment. In this regard, it is noteworthy that V. cholerae O1 El Tor check details CIRS101 carries a variant of the CTX cluster found in a group of newly emerged seventh pandemic clones, referred to as El Tor/Classical ‘hybrid’ or ‘altered’ strains (Nair et al., 2006). Therefore,

the new V. cholerae CIRS101 VSP-II may have arisen in a genomic background very positively selected in the human host (hybrid strains appear to produce more cholera toxins), likely becoming dominant among epidemic clones. A link between the evolutionary success of the two clusters (CTX and VSP-II) is not indicated, based on the presence of a canonical seventh pandemic VSP-II in two other hybrid strains: V. cholerae O1 MJ1236 (Bangladesh, 1994) and B33 (Mozambique, 2004). The VSP-II circulating among V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 and V. mimicus is the RC385 VSP-II. Despite different serotypes and significant genetic diversities among the strains, this variant appears to be stable in isolates obtained at different times and geographical locations, while TMA21 and MZO-3 VSP-II show only a limited distribution. The presence of the new VSP-II variants was not correlated with the presence of a new VSP-I, indicating that the two gene clusters derive from a different history of genetic exchange among V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 and V. mimicus.

In conclusion, our results show that MAC infections prior to HAART initiation impair subsequent immune reconstitution, confirming and extending previous data from another group [9]. These patients must therefore be considered for more aggressive and powerful initial HAART regimens. “
“NT-26 is a chemolithoautotrophic selleck chemical arsenite oxidizer. Understanding the mechanisms of arsenite signalling, tolerance and oxidation by NT-26 will have significant implications

for its use in bioremediation and arsenite sensing. We have identified the histidine kinase (AroS) and the cognate response regulator (AroR) involved in the arsenite-dependent transcriptional regulation of the arsenite oxidase aroBA operon. AroS contains a single periplasmic sensory domain that is linked through transmembrane helices to the HAMP domain that transmits the signal to the kinase core of the protein. AroR belongs to a family of AAA+ transcription regulators that interact with DNA through a helix-turn-helix domain. The presence of the AAA+ 17-AAG domain as well as the RNA polymerase σ54-interaction sequence motif suggests that this protein regulates transcription

through interaction with RNA polymerase in a σ54-dependent fashion. The kinase core of AroS and the receiver domain of AroR were heterologously expressed and purified and their autophosphorylation and transphosphorylation activities were confirmed. Using 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified the phosphorylation sites on both proteins. Mutational analysis in NT-26 confirmed that both proteins are essential for arsenite oxidation and the AroS mutant affected growth with arsenite, also implicating it in the regulation of arsenite tolerance. Lastly, arsenite sensing does not appear to involve thiol chemistry. Arsenic is a naturally occurring toxic metalloid whose soluble forms, arsenite (H3AsO3) and

arsenate (HAsO42−/H2AsO4−), can be used by certain prokaryotes for respiration (Stolz et al., 2006). Arsenite is most abundant in anoxic environments because, in oxic environments, it becomes readily oxidized to arsenate by arsenite-oxidizing bacteria –‘arsenite oxidizers’ (Stolz et al., 2006). Depending on their obligate source of carbon, arsenite oxidizers are either autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms that utilize either oxygen or nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor (Stolz et al., 2006). Rhizobium sp. str. NT-26 is a facultative chemolithoautotrophic arsenite oxidizer that was isolated from the Granites goldmine, Northern Territory, Australia (Santini et al., 2000). It oxidizes arsenite using a periplasmic heterotetrameric arsenite oxidase (Aro), which is part of an electron transport chain involving a soluble c-type cytochrome and cytochrome oxidase (Santini & vanden Hoven, 2004; Santini et al., 2007).

All patients who have originated or spent significant time (more

than 1 month) in sub-Saharan Africa should have Schistosoma serology performed. Any patient with an eosinophilia (absolute eosinophil count greater than 0.4 × 109 cells/L) on FBC who has originated or spent significant time (more than 1 month) in the Tropics (areas excluding Europe/Russia, LY294002 North America and Australasia) should be investigated further depending on geographical exposure [13, 14]: please liaise with a physician with a specialist interest or with an infectious diseases unit. Such tests will probably include (but not be limited to) stool examinations for ova, cysts and parasites, and serologies for helminths such as Strongyloides, filaria and Schistosoma (if not already performed). Patients who spend further time in the Tropics should have these tests repeated as required. It is preferable to perform all such investigations in asymptomatic patients at least 3 months after their last tropical exposure. Individuals with exposure check details longer than 1 month in sub-Saharan Africa should have screening with Schistosoma serology. Those with an

eosinophilia (absolute eosinophil count greater than 0.4 × 109 cells/L) who originate from or report significant time spent in tropical areas (more than 1 month) may have a helminthic infection

and should be further assessed (see text) (III). Thorough contact tracing and partner notification are essential; careful documentation of this, and Dynein eventual outcomes, should be performed. A patient may wish to delay disclosure to partners; some delay may be acceptable if there is no urgency (i.e. no ongoing risk behaviour). Attempts should be made to encourage and support disclosure, counselling should be provided and contacts should be tested; if the patient refuses to cooperate, then additional action may be required. Testing of children is a sensitive area and specialist input should be sought. Interventions shown to reduce transmission risk such as ART, pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis for seronegative partners, and diagnosis and treatment of STIs may all be relevant depending on specific circumstances. Asymptomatic individuals should be offered STI screening at least yearly with consideration of more frequent screening dependent on risk [1]. There is some evidence that adding syphilis serology to routine HIV monitoring reduces time with undiagnosed syphilis and therefore potentially contributes to a reduction in onward syphilis transmission [2]. Therefore, in individuals or groups at increased risk of syphilis (currently MSM), syphilis serology should be considered with routine HIV follow-up (2–4 times yearly).

Finally, the NADH-generating malic enzymes MaeA, MalS, and MleA are involved in keeping the ATP levels high. Together, this unique array of distinct activities makes malate a preferred carbon source for B. subtilis. “
“Hegewald Medizinprodukte

GmbH, Lichtenberg, Germany Rhodococcus opacus 1CP produces trehalose dinocardiomycolates during growth on long-chained n-alkanes. Trehalose and trehalose-6-phosphate, which are synthesized via the OtsAB pathway, are probable intermediates in the biosynthesis of these biosurfactants. By molecular genetic screening for trehalose-6-phosphate synthases (TPSs and OtsAs), two chromosomal fragments of strain 1CP were obtained. Each contained an ORF whose amino acid sequence showed Sirolimus cost high similarity to TPSs. To prove the activity of the otsA1 and otsA2 gene product and to detect catalytic differences, both were expressed as His-tagged fusion proteins. Enzyme kinetics of the enriched proteins using several potential glucosyl acceptors showed an exclusive preference for glucose-6-phosphate. In contrast, both enzymes were shown selleck chemical to differ significantly from each other in their activity

with different glucosyl nucleotides as glucosyl donors. OtsA1-His10 showed highest activity with ADP-glucose and UDP-glucose, whereas OtsA2-His10 preferred UDP-glucose. In addition, the wild-type OtsA activity of R. opacus 1CP was investigated and compared with recombinant enzymes. Results indicate that OstA2 mainly contributes to the trehalose pool of strain 1CP. OtsA1 seems to be involved in the overproduction

of trehalose lipids. For the first Lepirudin time, a physiological role of two different OtsAs obtained of a single Rhodococcus strain was presumed. “
“Parasitic nematodes of plants are important plant pathogens that represent a significant financial burden on agriculture. This study evaluated the efficacy of Bacillus spp. as nematode biocontrol agents and identified Bacillus genes associated with nematicidal activity. Culture by products of Bacillus subtilis strains OKB105 and 69 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strains FZB42 and B3 were used to treat Aphelenchoides besseyi, Ditylenchus destructor, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Meloidogyne javanica, respectively. The highest mortality rates were observed at 12 h when combinations of either A. besseyi/B3, D. destructor/OKB105, B. xylophilus/69 or M. javanica/OKB105 resulted in 10.6%, 27.6%, 35.6% and 100% mortality rates, respectively. Supernatant analysis demonstrated that the nematicidal active ingredients of strain OKB105, with a molecular weight of <1000 Da, were nonproteinaceous, heat and cold resistant, highly polar and could be evaporated but not extracted by some organic solvents. To identify nematicidal-related genes, 2000 OKB105 mutants were generated using the TnYLB-1 transposon. Mutant M1 lost nematicidal activity by 72 h and inverse PCR results demonstrated disruption of the purL gene.

Finally, the NADH-generating malic enzymes MaeA, MalS, and MleA are involved in keeping the ATP levels high. Together, this unique array of distinct activities makes malate a preferred carbon source for B. subtilis. “
“Hegewald Medizinprodukte

GmbH, Lichtenberg, Germany Rhodococcus opacus 1CP produces trehalose dinocardiomycolates during growth on long-chained n-alkanes. Trehalose and trehalose-6-phosphate, which are synthesized via the OtsAB pathway, are probable intermediates in the biosynthesis of these biosurfactants. By molecular genetic screening for trehalose-6-phosphate synthases (TPSs and OtsAs), two chromosomal fragments of strain 1CP were obtained. Each contained an ORF whose amino acid sequence showed SGI-1776 concentration high similarity to TPSs. To prove the activity of the otsA1 and otsA2 gene product and to detect catalytic differences, both were expressed as His-tagged fusion proteins. Enzyme kinetics of the enriched proteins using several potential glucosyl acceptors showed an exclusive preference for glucose-6-phosphate. In contrast, both enzymes were shown Antidiabetic Compound Library purchase to differ significantly from each other in their activity

with different glucosyl nucleotides as glucosyl donors. OtsA1-His10 showed highest activity with ADP-glucose and UDP-glucose, whereas OtsA2-His10 preferred UDP-glucose. In addition, the wild-type OtsA activity of R. opacus 1CP was investigated and compared with recombinant enzymes. Results indicate that OstA2 mainly contributes to the trehalose pool of strain 1CP. OtsA1 seems to be involved in the overproduction

of trehalose lipids. For the first MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit time, a physiological role of two different OtsAs obtained of a single Rhodococcus strain was presumed. “
“Parasitic nematodes of plants are important plant pathogens that represent a significant financial burden on agriculture. This study evaluated the efficacy of Bacillus spp. as nematode biocontrol agents and identified Bacillus genes associated with nematicidal activity. Culture by products of Bacillus subtilis strains OKB105 and 69 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strains FZB42 and B3 were used to treat Aphelenchoides besseyi, Ditylenchus destructor, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Meloidogyne javanica, respectively. The highest mortality rates were observed at 12 h when combinations of either A. besseyi/B3, D. destructor/OKB105, B. xylophilus/69 or M. javanica/OKB105 resulted in 10.6%, 27.6%, 35.6% and 100% mortality rates, respectively. Supernatant analysis demonstrated that the nematicidal active ingredients of strain OKB105, with a molecular weight of <1000 Da, were nonproteinaceous, heat and cold resistant, highly polar and could be evaporated but not extracted by some organic solvents. To identify nematicidal-related genes, 2000 OKB105 mutants were generated using the TnYLB-1 transposon. Mutant M1 lost nematicidal activity by 72 h and inverse PCR results demonstrated disruption of the purL gene.