Nonetheless, the negative-predictive value is high [35]. Therefore, re-biopsy of residual FDG-avid lesions post-therapy should always be considered. Those with persistent disease should be considered for salvage therapy, and those who have achieved a CR, observed. The decision to offer consolidation radiotherapy should be made at presentation (i.e., to bulk disease or bony lesions) and not to residual FDG-avid lesions in those treated with curative intent, as PET-positive lesions may represent more widespread disease. RT may be offered to those with PET-positive lesion(s) and who are ineligible for salvage CFTR modulator chemotherapy. There are scant data regarding long-term follow-up of survivors of lymphoma treatment

in the HIV setting. However, it is well described in the HIV-negative setting that prior anthracyclines (e.g., doxorubicin) are associated with cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Although it is unclear DAPT manufacturer if the incidence is higher in the HIV setting, patients with other cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., blood pressure, lipids, family history) may deserve greater surveillance. Chemotherapy for lymphoma is associated with an increased risk of myelodysplasia and acute myeloid leukaemia arising some 2–7 years later, often with cytogenetic abnormalities of chromosomes 5, 7 or 12. Chemotherapy

is also associated with an increased risk of second solid tumours, although previous radiotherapy is the greater risk factor. Other potential issues include endocrine and metabolic complications. Follow-up varies between centres but generally patients with aggressive histologies are seen every 3 months in the first year, 4–6 monthly for the second and third and thereafter 6 monthly until 5 years post treatment.

Patients are then often discharged to Ribonucleotide reductase primary care (having received an ‘end-of-treatment summary’) although data regarding long-term side effects in patients with HIV who have received treatment for lymphoma are scant. In light of this some patients continue to be monitored on an annual basis. 1 Beral V, Peterman T, Berkelman R, Jaffe H. AIDS-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Lancet 1991; 337: 805–809. 2 Biggar RJ, Rosenberg PS, Cote T. Kaposi’s sarcoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma following the diagnosis of AIDS. Multistate AIDS/Cancer Match Study Group. Int J Cancer 1996; 68: 754–758. 3 Cote TR, Biggar RJ, Rosenberg PS et al. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma among people with AIDS: incidence, presentation and public health burden. AIDS/Cancer Study Group. Int J Cancer 1997; 73: 645–650. 4 Engels EA, Biggar RJ, Hall HI et al. Cancer risk in people infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Int J Cancer 2008; 123: 187–194. 5 Highly active antiretroviral therapy and incidence of cancer in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1823–1830. 6 Stebbing J, Gazzard B, Mandalia S et al.

It therefore appears that the triggering molecules of Gram-positive bacteria are heterogeneous, and that these pathogens lack a common single LPS comparable mediator capable of initiating the entire cascade of inflammatory cytokines (Vallejo et al., 1996). Likewise, the cytokine network that accompanies Gram-positive sepsis is uncertain, find more with relatively few studies suggesting the equivalent involvement of cytokines in Gram-positive and Gram-negative sepsis (Wakabayashi et al., 1991; Timmerman et al., 1995), while other evidence substantiates the possibility of a kinetically and qualitatively different machinery (Anderson et al., 1992; Muller-Alouf et al., 1994; Silverstein et al., 1997;

Cohen & Abraham, 1999). Recent studies from our own laboratory point out the emergence of novel virulent strains of the Gram-positive fish pathogen Streptococcus iniae that are producers

of large amounts of free extracellular polysaccharide (EPS). So far, production of EPS has been described exclusively for food-grade lactic acid bacteria (LAB) of industrial interest (Cerning, 1990, 1994; de Vuyst & Degeest, 1999; Broadbent et al., 2003). For these bacteria, it was speculated (Stingele et al., 1996) that EPS synthesis by LAB might be a trait that was carried over in evolution from organisms for which the polysaccharides provided a selective advantage (Rubens et al., nearly 1987). SB203580 mouse For S. iniae, secretion of large quantities of EPS is advantageous, as it enables the pathogen to evade host humoral immune response that is directed primarily against saccharidic moieties located on the exterior capsular polysaccharidic layer (Eyngor et al., 2008). We also noticed that infection with S. iniae EPS-producing strains results in a stormy and generalized septic

disease with high bacterial counts disseminated throughout the organism, suggesting the possibility that EPS is also a virulence factor (Eyngor et al., 2008). This has never been investigated thoroughly. In light of these unresolved issues, we set out to further analyze the function of the EPS produced by novel strains to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of its role in relationship to the host innate immune response against S. iniae bacterial sepsis of fish. The present study has been predicated on the concept that S. iniae EPS is likely to play a major role in the pathophysiology of the disease, functioning as a crucial inducer of proinflammatory cytokines that are released during sepsis. To pursue this goal, a series of in vitro studies using purified EPS and viable S. iniae EPS-producing strains in coculture with trout macrophages were carried out in an effort to reproduce as closely as possible the in vivo host inflammatory response. We demonstrate here that the introduction of purified EPS and viable S.

It therefore appears that the triggering molecules of Gram-positive bacteria are heterogeneous, and that these pathogens lack a common single LPS comparable mediator capable of initiating the entire cascade of inflammatory cytokines (Vallejo et al., 1996). Likewise, the cytokine network that accompanies Gram-positive sepsis is uncertain, selleck inhibitor with relatively few studies suggesting the equivalent involvement of cytokines in Gram-positive and Gram-negative sepsis (Wakabayashi et al., 1991; Timmerman et al., 1995), while other evidence substantiates the possibility of a kinetically and qualitatively different machinery (Anderson et al., 1992; Muller-Alouf et al., 1994; Silverstein et al., 1997;

Cohen & Abraham, 1999). Recent studies from our own laboratory point out the emergence of novel virulent strains of the Gram-positive fish pathogen Streptococcus iniae that are producers

of large amounts of free extracellular polysaccharide (EPS). So far, production of EPS has been described exclusively for food-grade lactic acid bacteria (LAB) of industrial interest (Cerning, 1990, 1994; de Vuyst & Degeest, 1999; Broadbent et al., 2003). For these bacteria, it was speculated (Stingele et al., 1996) that EPS synthesis by LAB might be a trait that was carried over in evolution from organisms for which the polysaccharides provided a selective advantage (Rubens et al., see more 1987). HSP inhibitor clinical trial For S. iniae, secretion of large quantities of EPS is advantageous, as it enables the pathogen to evade host humoral immune response that is directed primarily against saccharidic moieties located on the exterior capsular polysaccharidic layer (Eyngor et al., 2008). We also noticed that infection with S. iniae EPS-producing strains results in a stormy and generalized septic

disease with high bacterial counts disseminated throughout the organism, suggesting the possibility that EPS is also a virulence factor (Eyngor et al., 2008). This has never been investigated thoroughly. In light of these unresolved issues, we set out to further analyze the function of the EPS produced by novel strains to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of its role in relationship to the host innate immune response against S. iniae bacterial sepsis of fish. The present study has been predicated on the concept that S. iniae EPS is likely to play a major role in the pathophysiology of the disease, functioning as a crucial inducer of proinflammatory cytokines that are released during sepsis. To pursue this goal, a series of in vitro studies using purified EPS and viable S. iniae EPS-producing strains in coculture with trout macrophages were carried out in an effort to reproduce as closely as possible the in vivo host inflammatory response. We demonstrate here that the introduction of purified EPS and viable S.

“
“1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity was evaluated in the biocontrol and plant growth-promoting fungus Trichoderma asperellum T203. Fungal cultures grown with ACC as the sole nitrogen source showed high enzymatic activity. The enzyme encoding gene (Tas-acdS) was isolated, and an average 3.5-fold induction of the gene by 3 mM ACC was detected by real-time PCR. Escherichia coli bacteria carrying the intron-free cDNA of Tas-acdS cloned into the vector pAlter-EX1 under the control of the tac promoter revealed specific ACC deaminase (ACCD) activity and the ability to promote canola (Brassica napus) root elongation in pouch assays. RNAi silencing of the ACCD gene in T.

asperellum showed decreased ability of the mutants BAY 80-6946 chemical structure to promote root elongation of canola seedlings. These data suggest a role for ACCD in the plant root growth-promotion effect by T. asperellum. Plant diseases are a major impediment to increasing

yields of many crops, selleck compound and result in large economic losses. An environmentally safe strategy to control diseases is biological control, which is based on natural antagonistic interactions among microorganisms. Successful biocontrol agents (BCAs) colonize roots and suppress pathogens by mechanisms that include niche exclusion and competition, direct antagonism of pathogens by antibiosis, parasitism or predation and by triggering systemic host plant defense responses (Chet & Chernin, 2002; Harman et al., 2004). Some BCAs are plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and fungi that also stimulate plant growth directly by altering plant hormone levels, facilitating iron acquisition through siderophore production, fixing atmospheric nitrogen and/or solubilizing minerals (Lugtenberg & Kamilova, 2009). Plant growth can also be stimulated by PGPR that produce 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, which cleaves ACC, the

immediate precursor of the plant hormone ethylene, to produce α-ketobutyrate and ammonia (Todorovic & Glick, 2008). Ethylene Diflunisal is an important signaling molecule in plants under pathogen attack or abiotic stresses and results in plant growth inhibition (Abels et al., 1992). Inoculation of plants with PGPR producing ACC deaminase (ACCD) lowers ethylene levels, which results in longer roots and decreased inhibition of plant growth following environmental or pathogen-induced stress (Glick et al., 1998, 2007; Farwell et al., 2007). Interestingly, it has been found that ACCD activity is not unique to bacteria. ACCD activity was detected in Penicillium citrinum (Jia et al., 2000). Two putative acdS genes were recently detected in the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana and evidence was presented supporting the hypothesis that these genes can act as regulators of ACC levels in A. thaliana and also in tomato fruit development (McDonnell et al., 2009; Plett et al., 2009). Certain Trichoderma spp.

This study was funded by the Research Council of Norway and the University of Bergen. Abbreviations ACD actinomycin D AIDA (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid CA cornu

ammonis CPP (R,S)-3-22-carboxypiperazin-4-yl-propyl-1-phosphonic acid DIG digoxigenin EDC 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminonpropyl) cabodiimide fEPSP field excitatory postsynaptic potential HFS high-frequency stimulation LFS low-frequency stimulation LNA locked nucleic acid LTP long-term potentiation MeCP2 methyl CpG-binding protein mGluR metabotropic glutamate receptor selleck inhibitor miRNA microRNA NMDAR N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor p250GAP p250 GTPase-activating protein PFA paraformaldehyde RISC RNA-induced silencing complex RT-PCR reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction SDS–PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis TBS Tris-buffered saline Table S1. TaqMan® MicroRNA Assays used in this study. Table S2. Oligonucleotides used for sequence-specific RT-priming. Table S3. Oligonucleotides used for real-time PCR. Appendix S1. Supplementary methods. As a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting

information supplied by the authors. Such materials are peer-reviewed Ribociclib mouse and may be re-organized for online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset by Wiley-Blackwell. Technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be addressed to the authors. “
“Regulating the number and function of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors located at the postsynaptic density is a key mechanism underlying synaptic strength and plasticity. Thus, an active area of investigation is the discovery of accessory proteins that regulate AMPA receptor

trafficking and biophysical properties. One decade ago, pioneering Rutecarpine studies identified the transmembrane protein stargazin as a critical regulator of synaptic targeting of AMPA receptors in cerebellar granule neurons. Stargazin-related family members called TARPs (transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins) are now recognized as essential auxiliary subunits for AMPA receptors that control both receptor trafficking and channel gating properties in a wide variety of neuronal cell types. Recent studies have identified a diverse array of additional accessory transmembrane proteins with distinct and overlapping functions compared with TARPs. Coupled with the wide variety of established cytoplasmic AMPA receptor accessory proteins, it is clear that AMPA receptor regulation encompasses a previously unrecognized diversity of molecular mechanisms. “
“Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 (UCH-L1), also called neuronal-specific protein gene product 9.5, is a highly abundant protein in the neuronal cell body and has been identified as a possible biomarker on the basis of a recent proteomic study.

This study was funded by the Research Council of Norway and the University of Bergen. Abbreviations ACD actinomycin D AIDA (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid CA cornu

ammonis CPP (R,S)-3-22-carboxypiperazin-4-yl-propyl-1-phosphonic acid DIG digoxigenin EDC 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminonpropyl) cabodiimide fEPSP field excitatory postsynaptic potential HFS high-frequency stimulation LFS low-frequency stimulation LNA locked nucleic acid LTP long-term potentiation MeCP2 methyl CpG-binding protein mGluR metabotropic glutamate receptor selleck chemicals llc miRNA microRNA NMDAR N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor p250GAP p250 GTPase-activating protein PFA paraformaldehyde RISC RNA-induced silencing complex RT-PCR reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction SDS–PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis TBS Tris-buffered saline Table S1. TaqMan® MicroRNA Assays used in this study. Table S2. Oligonucleotides used for sequence-specific RT-priming. Table S3. Oligonucleotides used for real-time PCR. Appendix S1. Supplementary methods. As a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting

information supplied by the authors. Such materials are peer-reviewed EPZ015666 and may be re-organized for online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset by Wiley-Blackwell. Technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be addressed to the authors. “
“Regulating the number and function of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors located at the postsynaptic density is a key mechanism underlying synaptic strength and plasticity. Thus, an active area of investigation is the discovery of accessory proteins that regulate AMPA receptor

trafficking and biophysical properties. One decade ago, pioneering Telomerase studies identified the transmembrane protein stargazin as a critical regulator of synaptic targeting of AMPA receptors in cerebellar granule neurons. Stargazin-related family members called TARPs (transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins) are now recognized as essential auxiliary subunits for AMPA receptors that control both receptor trafficking and channel gating properties in a wide variety of neuronal cell types. Recent studies have identified a diverse array of additional accessory transmembrane proteins with distinct and overlapping functions compared with TARPs. Coupled with the wide variety of established cytoplasmic AMPA receptor accessory proteins, it is clear that AMPA receptor regulation encompasses a previously unrecognized diversity of molecular mechanisms. “
“Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 (UCH-L1), also called neuronal-specific protein gene product 9.5, is a highly abundant protein in the neuronal cell body and has been identified as a possible biomarker on the basis of a recent proteomic study.

Depressive symptoms are associated with how problems are viewed and solved, and it is essential to provide training in problem-solving [28,29]. Self-reported stress and loneliness seemed to be very strong predictors of depression. Stress is difficult to define because it can cover many conditions.

It can refer to the strain involved, to the physical and mental changes taking place in the body and to an individual’s sense of inadequacy. Qualitative studies are needed to provide further information on defining stress in this context. A meta-analysis concluded that overall, stress-management interventions for HIV-positive adults significantly selleck inhibitor improved mental health and quality of life [30]. Low educational level, being unemployed and receiving sickness or disability benefits were associated

with risk of depression. Bing et al. [4] and Asch et al. [7] showed similar findings. Predictors of employment could be influenced by depression, or the opposite. A longitudinal study found that parameters associated with unemployment were financial situation (disability benefits), past/current diagnosis of major depression and/or dysthymia, medical condition (physical limitations), cognitive function (executive function) and educational level [31]. Risk of depression was higher among homosexual individuals compared to heterosexuals. Berg et al. [13] and Chander et al. [10] selleck chemical found similar

results. A hopeless financial situation was a strong predictor for symptoms of depression. One study found that baseline financial worries were associated with low adherence [32]. No studies were found focusing on HIV, depression and financial worries, but there are several studies of other chronic diseases and depression in general that have found the same association [33]. Depression Adenosine triphosphate in itself is connected for unsafe sex and thus the risk of transmitting HIV to others or contracting HIV [30]. The study showed that depressed HIV-positive patients reported having more unsafe sex compared to HIV-positive patients not at risk of depression, with an OR of 2.2 (95% CI 1.0–4.7) times higher for unsafe sex among HIV-positive patients with a moderate to major risk of depression (BDI>19) compared to other HIV-positive patients. There was a correlation between the degree of risk of depression and unsafe sex, number of partners and reporting not being satisfied with one’s sex life. In this study, patients at risk of depression had a 5.6 times higher risk of non-adherence to antiretroviral treatment. This is consistent with the existing literature [9,10,34]. A Danish study concluded that about 30% of 887 HIV patients reported being depressed; this group had a lower adherence compared to those who did not report being depressed [35].

The qPCR was initiated by 4 min of incubation at 95 °C, followed by 35 cycles of 95 °C for 20 s, 56 °C for 60 s and 72 °C for 60 s. Fluorescence data were recorded after the annealing steps. All experiments were carried out in triplicate. A genome target encoding the glycine oxidase (primers GlyOX68F and GlyOX68R) was used as a single-copy VX-765 mw reference. The repAB genes (primers DP2 and RP2) were used as a plasmid target. The amplification efficiency for both targets was 1.12 and 1.06, respectively. The template-free

negative control was used to estimate nonspecific binding. The copy number was calculated from the threshold cycle (CT). The CT values were calculated automatically according to the amplification plot (data not shown). The difference between the mean CT value learn more of the single-copy reference and the mean CT value of the vector target was calculated. DNA sequences have been deposited in GenBank and

can be accessed via accession numbers: HQ624979 (pPRH), HQ624980 (pRMU824), HQ624981 (pRMU824Km), HQ624982 (pRMU824Tc) and FM202433 (2-hydroxypyridine catabolic genes from Arthrobacter sp. PY22). Arthrobacter rhombi PRH1 was found to possess one small plasmid, designated as pPRH. The restriction and sequence analysis showed that pPRH was a circular DNA molecule, 5000 bp in length, with the G+C content of 66 mol%. It contained six putative ORFs and a putative promoter (859–899 nt) (Fig. 1a). The possible functions of the

ORFs are presented in Table 2. A search against the GenBank protein database revealed that ORF2 and ORF3 encoded putative replication proteins RepA and RepB, respectively. The ORF2 shared 61%, 57% and 55% aa sequence similarity with the RepA protein from the Rhodococcus sp. plasmid pNC500 (Matsui et al., 2007), pREC2 (Sekine et al., 2006) and pNC903 (Matsui et al., 2006), respectively. The protein Thalidomide encoded by the ORF3 also shared significant homology with the Rhodococcus spp. proteins, and the similarity to the RepB of pNC903 (Matsui et al., 2006), pRC4 (Hirasawa et al., 2001), pREC2 (Sekine et al., 2006), pFAJ2600 (De Mot et al., 1997) and pKNR01 (Na et al., 2005) was 60%, 60%, 64%, 63% and 69%, respectively. Based on similarities mentioned, ORF2 and ORF3 were given functional annotation and designated as RepA and RepB, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of RepA and RepB of pPRH showed that they formed a distinct cluster (Fig. 2a,b). Two conserved domains were detected in RepA protein. The N-terminal region (27–159 aa) was homologous to the replicase domain, which is usually found in DNA replication proteins of bacterial plasmids. The other domain (166–242 aa) shared structural features characteristic to the C terminal of primases. C-terminus of RepB (37–83 aa) was similar to a region 4 of sigma-70-like sigma factors. The protein encoded by ORF6 was homologous to resolvases (Table 2).

The project contributes to national HIV surveillance and focuses on the changing epidemiology of HIV/AIDS after the introduction of new therapies in 1995. ClinSurv HIV is designed as an open multicentre observational cohort study of HIV-infected patients. Anonymized data on diagnoses, treatment and laboratory parameters are collected in a standardized

format. Data are currently sampled biannually via 11 centres specializing in HIV diagnosis and care within the legal framework of the German Protection against Infection Act [Infektionsschutzgesetz (IfSG)]. A total of 14 874 patients were enrolled in the study by 30 June 2009. Of these, 10 221 patients (68.7%) were enrolled after 1 January 1999 and

6006 patients (40.4%) were known to have been diagnosed as positive for HIV before 1999. Evaluation indicators, selleck such as the number of newly enrolled patients per half-year period, loss to follow-up, completeness of data per case, availability of data per possible clinical contact, and internal quality control parameters, show a very stable evolution in the cohort, which although open, can be observed. Comparison with the national HIV surveillance data suggests a high degree of representativeness according to major demographic variables. Bearing in mind the obvious strengths and weaknesses discussed, the German ClinSurv HIV cohort provides a broad range of research opportunities in the field of CT99021 nmr HIV/AIDS both within Germany and in international collaborative research. As in other Western European countries, the total number of reported newly diagnosed HIV infections has increased markedly since 2001 in Germany, especially among men having sex with men (MSM) [1–3]. The number of

newly diagnosed cases of AIDS, however, decreased between 2000 and 2007 in the Western European region [4]. At the end of 2009, the prevalence of HIV infections and AIDS reached an estimated 67 000 (range 64 000–70 000) people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in Germany, of whom nearly 11 300 were living with AIDS [5]. National HIV surveillance in Germany is based on mandatory reports of newly diagnosed cases Tacrolimus (FK506) of HIV infection and voluntary reporting of AIDS cases to the Robert Koch Institute (RKI), a federal institute under the umbrella of the German Ministry of Health [Bundesministerium für Gesundheit (BMG)]. Since 2001, surveillance of HIV/AIDS has been regulated by the national Protection against Infection Act [Infektionsschutzgesetz (IfSG)] [6]. Follow-up of clinical care of patients infected with HIV in Germany requires additional surveillance instruments. In particular, a cohort study design complements the ‘traditional’ cross-sectional surveillance.

From the data, the following parameters were determined: time-to-peak heat flow, peak heat flow, mean heat flow (that is, heat flow averaged over the period, 72–420 h, as during this time it stayed on a stable plateau level after reaching the peak heat flow), and total heat produced up to 480 h (computed as the integral of the heat-flow-vs.-time curve between 0 and 480 h). For each of the four IMC parameters determined, the median, mean, and standard deviation were

CHIR-99021 mouse computed. Test of significance was conducted using the Kruskal–Wallis analysis of variance method and a commercially available software package (stata Statistical Software, release 16; StataCorp, College Station, TX). Significance was denoted at P < 0.05. SEM revealed that a biofilm was present over the entire surface of a protein-coated titanium disk (Fig. 1a), although minor variations were observed in the density and areas covered by the EPS matrix (Fig. 1b). FISH/CLSM showed bundles of F. nucleatum cells that formed the framework of the biofilm in which both coccal species were observed to bind (Fig. 2). Hardly, any co-adherence between the two coccal click here species was detected. While the relative proportions of the bacterial species stayed unchaged within the biofilms, the total bacterial count showed significant differences

(P < 0.05); however, the biological meaning of the minor differences in total counts is doubtful (Table 2). A typical IMC heat-flow-vs.-time plot is given in Fig. 3. In 17 of 24 samples, after the heat flow reached a peak, it gradually reduced and finally returned to baseline value. In each of the other seven samples, however, after the heat flow reached a peak, it did not reduce to baseline value but remained at a high plateau. While the variability in the time-to-reach clonidine peak, heat flow is low, each of the other three parameters determined showed large variability (Table 3). Microscopic analyses have proven to

be invaluable tools in describing biofilms in terms of their structure and association with a surface; however, no real-time information about the dynamics of the metabolic activity and biomass formation can be obtained. The present study is the first of its kind characterizing a multispecies in vitro biofilm using both well-established microscopic methods (SEM and FISH/CLSM) and a very sensitive calorimetric method (IMC). Imaging by SEM was used to gain the first overview of the formed biofilm. As intended, the scans revealed biofilms that covered the entire surface with bacteria partially embedded in EPS, indicating that 0.2% glucose (Tenuta et al., 2006; Filoche et al., 2007) was sufficient to induce EPS formation. In addition, SEM showed that F. nucleatum served as the central ‘bridging organism’ or framework in the biofilm architecture, demonstrating inter- and intraspecies cellular binding (Lancy et al., 1983; Kaplan et al., 2009; Merritt et al., 2009).