In addition, simulation experiments also provide information on the expected in vivo drug levels over an extended duration of treatment. Such types of studies are popular as they minimize the unnecessary usage of human and/or animal subjects in actual multiple dose pharmacokinetic studies and also offer time and cost savings to a clinician. Further, the multiple dosing simulations also provide data on the steady state concentration that are expected upon repeated dosing of a given formulation. Typically, simulation experiments require that concentration time data generated from a single dose be extrapolated to a multiple dosing scenario using the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical principle

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of superposition. Based on this principle, Formulations

A and B with a short duration of action (Figure 2) would be dosed at different intervals from Formulations C and D. Once a week dosing for Formulations A and B (Figure 3) shows active moiety levels between 100 and 260ng/mL with an initial spike in drug levels observed after the administration of the first dose. As dosing continues, the peaks Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical occur immediately after each administration but then fall quickly to 100ng/mL only to repeat the peak and trough profiles throughout the 4 doses administered. In general, peak values of 280ng/mL were obtained after dose 4 (steady state) with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical trough values of 100ng/mL. Thus, Formulations A

and B exhibited a pulsatile profile after simulations of multiple dosing. As expected from Figure 2, the similarity in behavior was attributed to the small particle size, high drug load, and high bulk density of the two formulations prepared using 50:50 PLGA. Figure 3 Simulation of multiple dosing regimen for Formulations A and B administered weekly, total = 4 doses. For Formulations C and D, a 15-day dosing regimen was attempted (Figure 4). Once again, a pulsatile release profile is Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical observed primarily due to the initial burst observed with both formulations. Florfenicol From an initial peak active moiety value of ~250ng/mL for Formulation C and nearly 110ng/mL for Formulation D, values reach 290ng/mL for Formulation C and 190ng/mL for Formulation D. The in vivo profiles of the two formulations are nearly similar, with the exception of the peak height of the initial spike. Throughout the course of dosing, active moiety levels ranged between 85 and 290ng/mL and are similar to the range observed with Formulations A and B. Figure 4 Simulation of multiple dosing regimen for Formulations C and D administered every 15 days, total = 4 doses. These results Selumetinib mw suggest that with the proper choice of PLGA polymer, similar blood levels can be obtained for different dosing regimens, that is, weekly or 15-day dosing.

1995). During development, JAM-C localization is absent in immature Schwann cells and is only expressed from postnatal day P5 onwards, as observed in mice by Scheiermann et al. (2007). Our study adds another example to the literature of developmental recapitulation

postinjury, demonstrated by the downregulation and subsequent upregulation of JAM-C. Chronic JAM-C localization of Procaspase activation paranodes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and incisures after injury At 56 days postinjury, significantly increased numbers of JAM-C immunoreactive paranodes were present in the region distal to the crush site, with JAM-C immunoreactive paranodal densities highest in the far-most distal region; almost 2.5-fold compared to numbers in uninjured sciatic nerve. This trend may be explained by abnormally short internodal distances, thus resulting in increased numbers of JAM-C immunoreactive paranodes. Abnormally short internodal distances have been implicated in causing a conduction velocity lag in regenerated axons, as they are formed by more than a threefold increase during Schwann cell proliferation in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical distal nerve stump (Hiscoe 1947; Haftek and Thomas 1968). These distances slowly increase during the course of myelin Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sheath remodeling

by Schwann cells (Hildebrand et al. 1994; Schafer et al. 2006). Hence, regions in the far-most distal regions may have more paranodes, as a result of varying degrees of myelin sheath remodeling through the distal nerve. Previous studies Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical indirectly support these findings by observations of increased nodes following crush injury (Nakata

et al. 2008). It would be interesting to look at survival times longer than 56 days, to determine how long it takes JAM-C localization to return to naïve levels. In contrast, the JAM-C immunoreactive incisural densities decreased proximo-distally, with the highest numbers in the near-distal region. As incisures subserve Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a role to maintain myelin sheath integrity, it is likely that the increased numbers are present to help provide stability between the various myelin sheath layers. Their smaller size, postinjury, may be related to thin myelin during remyelination. The localization of JAM-C is specific to noncompact myelin; that is, at the incisures and paranodes, where a no wide variety of specialized junctions exists, including gap, adherens, and tight junctions. These regions are believed to be critical for signaling, transport of small metabolites, and maintenance of myelin structure (Spiegel et al. 2007). JAM-C may play such a role in promoting the maintenance of myelin structural integrity. From our measurements of P0 myelin density, at the most distal region at 56 days, myelination had not yet reached the levels of controls. This implies that the increased JAM-C localization may possibly be due to the remyelinating nerve still being present in a remodeling stage.

2006; Tyring et al. 2006; Raison et al. 2013). Additional immunotherapies for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders are currently under investigation by our lab and others (e.g., Loftis et al. 2013b). Strengths and Limitations This study includes both strengths and limitations. Current

NVP-BKM120 price substance abuse was evaluated using self-report measures (rather than drug testing). Although self-reports were cross-validated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical by study personnel who reviewed each participant’s medical record to assess substance use history and current use patterns, it is possible that some participants may have had ongoing substance abuse. Prior use of injectable drugs may have contributed to the altered expression of immune factors in adults with HCV (or without HCV). Some Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical studies show that injection drug use—currently, the most common way to become infected with HCV—is also associated with increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., Graham et al. 2007).

Given that history of intravenous drug use was not recorded in this study (except in the HCV+ group if that was how HCV was reportedly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical contracted), we are not able to determine whether a remote history of injection drug use impacted the inflammatory profiles. Furthermore, a cross-sectional study design does not allow for definitive conclusions on causality, and regression analyses are considered exploratory in nature. The models we used were constructed with backward regression for the purpose of finding an optimal set of models that significantly predict neuropsychiatric symptom severity. Such an approach does carry with it a risk of developing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical models that are data set specific. Therefore, future research is necessary to cross-validate the protein signatures in additional samples. Protein signatures need to be evaluated with reference to

population norms in nationally representative samples prior to clinical application (e.g., for diagnostic purposes or to track symptom severity or treatment progress), as Luminex-based platforms can vary in their ability to measure serum and/or Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical plasma concentrations of cytokines. However, these multiplex assays generally detect similar patterns of cytokine alterations and may be useful for studies in which relative, rather than absolute, changes in cytokines are of interest (Breen et al. 2011). Conclusions and Clinical Implications unless Despite limitations, through MAP analysis of 47 plasma immune factors, this study demonstrates that adults with HCV evidence increased peripheral immune activation and increased expression of immune-related proteins that are associated with a constellation of neuropsychiatric symptoms. Moreover, results suggest that altered expression of a network of plasma immune factors contributes to neuropsychiatric symptom severity (i.e., depression, anxiety, fatigue, pain) in adults with and without HCV.

Theoretical and empirical background Dependency in an ontological and cultural perspective According to Henriksen and Vetlesen (2000), dependency determines what it means to be a human being. Dependency is linked to a resulting vulnerability meaning that the human being is referred to the care of others, as the human being is not a self-sufficient self, but

always in relationships with other human beings. In this referral there is an inherent risk of not being seen and the caring needs of the individual are not met. Dependency thus contributes to making life frail. Dependency on others Ceritinib is constituted by our lives, but it is often in connection with severe illness that we become conscious of this dependency on others. It is when serious illness marks you, you become aware of things that have functioned previously. Dependency on others is often associated with negative feelings and powerlessness and that is a value-laden LY2157299 ic50 concept. This can be understood from a cultural–historical perspective as autonomy in the western culture is considered an overall value. Autonomy means to be self-governing and self-determining. This interpretation of the concept of autonomy comes from the moral philosopher Kant (1724–1804) and is still leading today. To be self-sufficient financially and in relation to

work as a cultural ideal can create a basis for the thought that as human beings we are independent. To be independent becomes an ideal demonstrating freedom that can be won by the human being. Dependency is considered something you can grow out of or detach yourself from. Thus, there is a tension between dependency as a basic human condition and the cultural ideal of individual freedom and independency (Henriksen & Vetlesen, 2000). Dependency on care in the ICU The literature review showed that the majority of studies investigate dependency from an organizational perspective. They focus on how dependency can be estimated to assess the optimal nurse–patient ratio, the effect of different classification systems for this assessment, or an estimation of the workload of nurses (Adomat & Hewison, 2004; Adomat

& Hicks, 2003; Donoghue, Decker, Mitten-Lewis, & Blay, 2001; Large, Nattrass, & Simpson, 1991; Thymidine kinase Wardle, 1997). Three articles discuss different aspects of dependency on care from a patient perspective. Griffin (1982) discussed how the self of critically ill patients is threatened when they are forced to be dependent on others. Forced dependency and loss of control are described as significant stressors in the intensive care patient; some patients described the feeling of lack of control and helplessness as more threatening than the threat of death. The article is rather old, and it is uncertain whether it is based on actual research as it has not been possible to procure the sources on which the article is based.

Aversive stimulus therapy improves NB, although its effect is not as much as the competing response method.36 Self-Control Intervention Considering that human behavior is goal-directed and affected by different factors, self-control intervention is proposed as a method for the management of NB.43 In this method, some specific self-control skills are learned and applied by the subjects. The method is performed in a number of steps. First, the children are taught that the targeted behavior is a problem, and they can change it. Second, the children are Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical told to try to find the possible cause of NB as well as the thought and feelings that are associated with the behavior.

Third, the children are instructed to do self-monitoring, as it can Navitoclax purchase increase their awareness from the behavior. Forth, children are educated to use some learned skills such as self-talk and self-reward to change the automated behavior. Fifth, children are trained to use the learned Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical skills to manage and change

other similar pathologic behaviors.43 Pharmacotherapy To the best of the author’s knowledge, there is no a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigating the efficacy of drugs such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine for the treatment of NB. There Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are just a number of case reports about the association of NB with other similar behaviors such as skin picking. Flouxtine has been reported to be effective for the treatment of chewing of digits.44 However, there is a report that fluvoxamine and paroxetine induced or aggravated pathological skin-picking, a type of impulsive self injury behavior, in two patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder.45 Since, NB as an impulse Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical disorder, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may exacerbate

it. This suggestion is based on the belief that impulsivity is exacerbated in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical some impulse-prone patients by SSRIs.46 It is supposed that NB, trichotillomania, and obsessive-compulsive disorder have a similar biologic etiology.47 A double-blind comparison of clomipramine and desipramine effects in individuals with NB habit, who did not have obsessive compulsive disorder, indicated that clomipramine was more effective than desipramine.47 Currently, we are conducting two clinical trials for the treatment of children and adolescents with NB behavior (Irct registration number: Resminostat IRCT138902303930N2; Irct registration number: IRCT201103023930N3). Conclusion It seems that one possible reason for the lack of success in management of NB by approaches such as wearing nails, coating them with unpleasant substances, and repeated prompting of the children to stop NB is the lack of consideration of NB as a symptom of a more complicated condition. Nail biting is not an isolated symptom. It can be one symptom from a cluster of symptoms, all of which as well as the motivation behind NB should be evaluated, assessed and managed.

* Table 3. Pairwise agreements between sets of criteria (N = 43). Table 4 summarises the frequencies of the principal categories of symptoms and signs used in NMS diagnostic criteria for all suspected NMS cases. All differed significantly between those with and those without diagnosable

NMS. Pyrexia, defined on the basis of ‘pyrexia’ or ‘fever’ as a term being stated or a recorded temperature of 37°C or higher, was present in all cases with diagnosable NMS, and extra-pyramidal symptoms (EPS) and autonomic symptoms were present in over 90%. However, these features (along with all other features) were also present in appreciable proportions (12–49%) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of cases with suspected NMS who did not fulfil diagnostic criteria. Table 4. Distribution of main symptoms, signs and investigations among suspected neuroleptic malignant syndrome Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (NMS) cases (N = 183). Further analyses were carried out of the six mutually exclusive symptoms and signs given in Table 4: pyrexia/fever; rigidity; any EPS (excluding rigidity); any autonomic symptom; any altered consciousness; and elevated creatine kinase (CK). These revealed 0 (0%), 0 (0%), 1 (2.3%), 4 (9.3%), Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 13 (30.2%), 14 (32.6%) and 11 (25.6%) subjects with 0–6 of these six symptoms and signs respectively among the 43 diagnosed

NMS cases [i.e. implying the following sensitivity statistics for ascending cutoffs (1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6): 0, 2.3, 11.6, 41.8, 74.4, 100]. Of the 140 subjects not meeting any NMS diagnostic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical criteria, 26 (18.6%), 27 (19.3%), 35 (25.0%), 37 (26.4%), 15 (10.7%), 0 (0.0%) and 0 (0.0%) were found with 0–6 of these six symptoms and signs respectively (i.e. specificity statistics for respective cutoffs of 81.4, 62.1, 37.1, 10.7, 0, 0), representing a significant group difference (χ2 = 118.8; degrees of BIBW2992 order freedom: 6; p < 0.01). Positive predictive values for cutoffs derived

from these groups were 0, 2.8, 12.6, 59.0, 100 and 100 respectively. Of the 140 subjects not meeting any NMS diagnostic criteria, 30 met the probable NMS criteria defined by Pope and colleagues. Of these, 0 (0.0%), 0 (0.0%), 12 (40.0%), 10 (33.3%), 8 (26.7%), Oxalosuccinic acid 0 (0.0%) and 0 (0.0%) had 0–6 of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the six symptoms and signs described above (cutoff sensitivities for probable NMS in this group: 0, 40.0, 73.3, 100, 100, 100). If they were reconsidered as NMS cases, the positive predictive values for cutoffs derived from the 0–6 symptoms and signs were 0, 34.3, 61.3, 100, 100, 100, and the specificities were 76.4, 51.9, 31.0, 6.5, 0, 0, respectively. Probable NMS defined by Pope and colleagues was also significantly associated with the six mutually exclusive symptoms and signs among subjects who did not meet any of the six criteria (χ2 = 27.6; degrees of freedom: 4; p < 0.01). Discussion We applied text string searching to a research database, derived from the electronic clinical records of a large mental health service provider and containing information on over 150,000 cases.

This selleck chemical is critical as overweight and obesity prevalence rises sharply in tandem with the risk of non-communicable diseases.9,12,18 Another important issue that demands attention is the increasing abuse of the dietetics profession by charlatans posing as dietitians and diet counselors. The Ghana Health Service, in partnership

with the Ghana Dietetic Association as well as the newly created Allied Health Task Force needs to design and enforce regulatory mechanisms for ensuring appropriate professional conduct and practice. The development of a code of ethics by the Dietetic Association is a good first step, in addition to registration of dietitians by the Allied Health Task Force. Adequate public awareness will be necessary to ensure that both the public and practitioners are knowledgeable about how to determine who is a qualified practitioner or otherwise. In the study by Calabro et al, most of the African countries south of the Sahara (exception South Africa and Botswana) either did not have a code of ethics or did not know about its existence.17 Also, many (40%) did not have requirement for practice credentials. Addressing the

issues about credibility will help address some of the challenges dietitians encounter relating to poor perception of their status as professionals, and suboptimal remuneration. Conclusion and Recommendations Dietetic practice in Ghana has evolved from an era of low technical competence to a current state of having more professionally qualified dietitians. However, these professionally qualified dietitians MLN8237 chemical structure reside mainly in Accra. Bold steps are needed to hire more dietitians

into all regional hospitals as a first step to expanding dietetics care in Ghana. While that is being done, there is also the need to address practice and professional challenges of the profession and for dietitians. Acknowledgement We wish to acknowledge the help and information provided by all the practicing and retired dietitians towards the preparation of this article. We are also grateful to the faculty at the listed universities for providing also enrolment and graduation information: University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and the University of Health and Allied Sciences.
The 118 pelvic organ prolapse cases constituted (2.68%) of the 4403 gynaecological out-patient cases seen during the two year study period. The mean age and standard deviation was (45.9± 15.1) and the modal age group was 30–39 years with 32 (27.1%) of cases. There were 112 (94.9%) cases of uterine prolapse, 95 (80.5%) had cystocele, 16 (13.5%) patients had rectoceles and 3 (2.5%) had enterocele. Their main occupations were trading 66 (55.9%) and farming 44 (37.3%), seventy (62.5%) of the patients with uterine prolapse were premenopausal while (10) 14.

Hippocampal volume loss, as well as reduction of other brain

regions, is present in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and is related to epilepsy chronicity.42 Hippocampal sclerosis may also accompany transactive response DNA binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) associated FTD,43 which may account for a hippocampal volume loss.12 Elderly patients with hippocampal sclerosis may be misdiagnosed as having AD, since the clinical features of memory loss may be identical to memory loss in AD.31,44 Memory impairment due to other neurological diseases Impairment of episodic memory and other cognitive functions is a common feature in a range of neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease,45 Huntington’s disease,46,47 epilepsy,48 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical multiple Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sclerosis,49 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,50 or limbic encephalitis.51 In most of these diseases, clinical investigation

and brain imaging will lead to the correct diagnosis of non-AD memory impairment, and the syndromal overlap with AD is usually smaller than in other neurodegenerative Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical disorders. Awareness of cognitive symptoms in Parkinson’s disease is growing. Approximately one fourth of nondemented patients with Parkinson’s disease were identified as suffering from MCI, with the majority suffering from the amnestic subtype.45 In a recent MRI study on hippocampal volume and microstructural alterations using Venetoclax diffusion tensor imaging analyses, declarative memory impairment was associated with microstructural alterations,

but not hippocampal total volume in nondemented Parkinson’s disease patients.52 In patients with epilepsy, hippocampal atrophy has been described in patients with transient amnesia53 and hippocampal sclerosis associated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with epilepsy may also lead to an amnestic syndrome possibly resembling AD in elderly patients.42 Atrophy observed in patients with epilepsy may be partly reversible.54 Limbic encephalitis is a rare but treatable neurological, autoimmune, often paraneoplastic, disorder that mainly presents with memory impairment, temporal lobe seizures, or affective symptoms.51 Damage of the medial temporal lobe is common in limbic encephalitis; typical hyperintensities of the temporal not lobes are seen in the cranial MRI and may cause severe reduction of memory function.55 Memory impairment due to general medical conditions Apart from neurodegenerative or neurological diseases, general medical diseases may also lead to an impairment of memory, eg, diabetes mellitus, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), pregnancy, or menopause among others (for an overview see ref 6). Brain atrophy, particularly microstructural hippocampal alterations seen using diffusion tensor imaging, has been associated with diabetes, independent of vascular lesions.56 Hypoglycemia due to insulin therapy may also lead to structural brain damage and memory impairments in patients with type 1 diabetes.

2). In order to comprehend the occurrence of enhancements, the peculiarities of interference need to be considered and its dissimilarities to priming highlighted. In his review on neuroimaging studies of priming, Henson (2003) concluded that SB431542 enhancement occurs in regions engaged in an additional process for primed compared to unprimed stimuli,

and suppression occurs in regions occupied in processes for both primed and unprimed stimuli. In interference paradigms, the pairs Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of distractor (prime) and target picture are compared between conditions, and therefore all conditions should require the same language processes. Nevertheless, facilitatory interference does not generally lead to suppressed language-related brain activations, just Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as inhibitory interference does not generally cause increased activations for monitoring/cognitive control. Thus, there appear to be profound differences between interference

(defined as an overlap in processing of prime and target) and priming (defined as beneficial preactivation of the target). In priming paradigms, the interval between prime and target usually varies from seconds to months (Tulving and Schacter 1990). However, if the prime is presented shortly before the target (like in masked priming paradigms, e.g., Rossell et al. 2003), the “event-related hemodynamic response is still an aggregate response to both the prime and target” (Henson 2003). In other words, there is Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical repetition enhancement because the activation of the prime is added to the one of the target (Schnyer Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical et al. 2002). In interference paradigms, the time interval (SOA) between distractor and target is per definition relatively short, which has several important consequences. First, hemodynamic responses can be specifically enhanced for linguistic stages Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical due to the intersection of distractor and word-processing stages as mentioned above (Abel et al. 2009a). The increase of activation due to parallel processing of distractor and target was termed “dual activation” in Abel et al. (2009a). A boost of activation occurs directly at overlapping word-processing stages and indirectly

at neighboring stages due to forward spreading of activation. Second, profound and potentially long-term neural changes as mechanism underlying response alterations found can be presumed for priming (Henson 2003), but this explanation is implausible for interference. As shown for repeated picture naming, the strengthening of links between pictorial and lexical representation takes time to establish (at least 30s; van Turennout et al. 2000). Third, short SOAs (<250 msec) have been presumed to evoke automatic activation spreading to related representations, while greater SOAs are open to strategies (cf. Neely 1991). To sum, it remains unclear to which extent neural correlates of interference resemble neural priming effects and mirror dual activation, given the short SOAs for the former.

Electron microscopy (EM) Dissociated cells in the plating medium were seeded into Metrigel Matrix Cell Culture Inserts (BD Biosciences, Bedford, MA, USA), at the same density as that on cover slips. After overnight incubation, the plating medium was replaced with www.selleckchem.com/products/Gefitinib.html myelination medium (being careful not to disturb cells). Medium change schedule was the same as those in cover slips. At DIV40, cells were fixed with 0.5% glutaraldehyde for 30 min at RT, washed and stored in PBS at 4°C, and then with standard procedures of EM osmication with en bloc, staining of 2% uranyl acetate for 5 min. The tissue was embedded in Durcupan and ultrathin sections were cut and then

examined with a LEO Biological transmission Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical electron microscope (Zeiss Corp., Thornwood, NY, USA) equipped with digital camera system for later photograph analysis. Treatment with proinflammatory cytokines At DIV14, the spinal cord derived cells were treated with TNFα (10 ng/mL), IL-1β (10 ng/mL), or the vehicle (1:1000 dilution of PBS in the medium) as the control. The culture medium was exchanged with fresh medium containing TNFα, IL-1β, or Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the vehicle every 4 days. At DIV40, cells were fixed with 4% PFA and processed for myelin basic protein (MBP)/phosphorylated neurofilament Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical H (pNF) double immunostaining. Inducing demyelination Two commonly used

demyelinating reagents were tested on the spinal cord-derived myelination culture at DIV40. For LPC-induced demyelination, cells were treated with LPC (100 μg/mL) or the vehicle (1:1000 dilution of ethanol) serving as the control. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical For autoimmune-mediated demyelination study, cells were exposed to anti-MOG antibody at 10 μg/mL (Chemicon, Temecula, CA, USA), normal guinea pig serum (source for complement, 12.5 μl/mL) (Diemel et al. 2004), or anti-MOG antibody plus normal guinea pig serum. Untreated sister cultures were used as the control. After 24, 48, and 96 h, cells were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical fixed and processed for MBP/pNF double immunocytochemistry. Quantification of myelination Two different approaches were conducted to quantify myelination in our cell culture models. First, myelin segments were initially counted manually at DIV26. Ten fields (25× objective) were randomly

selected and captured from each cover slip with a fluorescence microscope. The numbers of myelin segments were counted and averaged as one sample. Data were obtained from PAK6 three separated primary cultures and four cover slips were included in each preparation. Thus, 12 individual samples were obtained for final data analysis. Second, at DIV40, myelin segments were very dense making it almost impossible to individually count the segments. Therefore, an alternative approach was adopted by calculating the ratio of areas occupied by myelinated axons (MBP labeled) to the total area of entire image using ImageJ software (see results). The ratio was defined as myelination index (%). Statistics Statistics were performed using SigmaPlot software (version 11.0).