The numbers of transposase genes classified as upregulated in the heat maps learn more in Figure 1 include 44 in 3dN2 cells, 40 in 5dNH4 cells and only two in 3dNH4 cells. Twenty-eight were down

regulated in the 3dNH4 cells as shown by the heat map analysis (Additional File 8: SNP_call_list.xls). These results suggest a relative quiescence of transposase ORFs during healthy growth, and a burst of transcription when cells are stressed. Mutagenesis of genes involved in general metabolic pathways in Escherichia coli has been shown to promote earlier transposition of an IS5 family insertion sequence [29]. Media supplements to the mutated cells were shown to delay transposition events, thereby showing general starvation responses were likely involved in increased IS element activity [29]. The expression of nif cluster genes in the 5dNH4 sample suggests that the ammonium content of the medium was depleted, or nutrient deprived microsites had developed among the mycelia. One of the highly expressed non-ribosomal ORFs is the pyrophosphohydrolase gene hisE (Francci3_4317), find more suggesting that the amino acid histidine is in short supply. Additionally, a serine O-acetyltransferase was highly expressed in 5dNH4 cells, indicating activity in the cysteine selleck synthesis pathway. Higher

expression of both ppx/gppA ORFs (Locus tags: Francci3_0472 and Francci3_3920) in the 5dNH4 sample suggests that the stringent response [30] is active in response to amino acid deprivation. Two ORFs annotated as (p)ppGpp synthetases (Locus tags: Francci3_1376 and Francci3_1377) were actually more highly expressed in 3dN2 and 3dNH4 cells than in 5dNH4 cells. Transcription of IS elements does not directly correlate to translation [31].

Many IS elements prevent their Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II own transposition by requiring a -1 frame shift mutation in the transcript in order to express a functional transposase protein [32]. Since the specific methods of translational control used by Frankia IS elements are unknown, transcriptome data alone cannot be used as a proportional metric for transposition activity. On the other hand, recent proteomic studies on the CcI3 genome have confirmed that translation of many IS elements does occur in vivo and in symbiosis [16, 33]. RT-qPCR confirmation of transposase transcription Duplicated copies of highly similar transposase ORFs presented a problem in the analysis of transcript sequence data. To compare transcription frequencies of duplicated ORFs in different culture conditions, we used RT-qPCR to amplify conserved regions of eight duplicated transposase ORF families using primers designed to amplify conserved regions in each group. The duplicates had greater than 98% nucleotide similarity with each other. The glutamine synthetase I (glnA) gene was used to normalize expression data as previously described [34].