The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. This work is a part of the Project “Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Production by using Nano/Biotechnological and Irradiation Processes” and Nanotechnology Research Unit (P.I.

Prof.Dr. Ahmed El-Batal) at Pharmaceutical Microbiology Laboratory in Drug Radiation Research Department and the financial support was provided by NCRRT. “
“The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of nuclear ribosomal DNA with bi-parental inheritance is currently used widely to determine the genetic diversity of land plants [1], Trametinib purchase [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9] and [10]. However, one limitation of species identification using the ITS sequence is that the method has limited resolution in identifying species, especially within closely related taxa [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10] and [11]. For instance, the discriminating power of the four recommended DNA markers at the species level in Alnus (Betulaceae) was 10% (rbcL), 31.25% (matK), 63.6% (trnH–psbA), and 76.9% (ITS) [3]. Among the four DNA regions (rbcL, matK, trnH–psbA, and ITS), the ITS sequence has the most variable information, and appears to have limited power to discriminate closely related taxa in Juglandaceae [5].

Hanabusaya and Adenophora sect. Remotiflorae of the family Campanulaceae could buy EPZ015666 not be resolved using ITS sequences [6]. As a result of insufficient morphological information and DNA markers, the development of scientific research has been severely hindered in fields such as taxonomy, ecology, and genetic resource evaluation. Development of new and more sensitive nuclear DNA markers for biodiversity detection is highly desirable [11] and [12]. The ubiquitin–proteasome system, which plays a key RAS p21 protein activator 1 role in degradation of proteins, is imperative for maintaining the cellular homeostasis in eukaryotic cells [13]. Three enzymes are required

in the ubiquitination and targeting of proteins for degradation: ubiquitin activating enzyme E1, ubiquitin conjugating enzyme E2, and the highly conserved ubiquitin ligase E3. Ubiquitin ligases are key components of the ubiquitin–proteasome system. After a protein has been ubiquitinated, the substrate protein will be located to the proteasome (a cylindrical complex) to be degraded into smaller polypeptides or other molecules with biological activity for reutilization [13]. Ubiquitin plays a vital role not only in protein degradation but also in many cellular functions including DNA repair processes, cell cycle regulation, cell growth, immune system functionality, and hormone-mediated signaling in plants. In recent years, several types of the ubiquitin ligase E3, such as RING finger-containing E3s (RBR and TRIM families), cullin-containing E3 complexes, Ubox E3s and HECT E3s, were reported [14].