S. culture (Azmitia & Brown, 2002). Hispanic cultural values are thought to protect against external stress, to discourage family conflict, and to promote a strong orientation toward the family (Gonzales, Deardorff, Formoso, Barr, & Barrera, 2006; Rivera et al., 2008). With acculturation, youth may disengage from, thereby or not learn about, these protective cultural values, thereby increasing their smoking risk (Gil, Wagner, & Vega, 2000). The cultural value of familismo emphasizes trust between family members, loyalty to the family, and a general orientation to the family. The cultural value of respeto dictates deferential behavior toward relatives and maintains family harmony (Azmitia & Brown, 2002). Low familismo and respeto relate to more substance use, and acculturation has been linked with less familismo and respeto (Gil et al.

, 2000). The cultural value of fatalismo encompasses the belief that one cannot control the future. Fatalismo has been portrayed as a culturally rooted adaptive response to external stress in collectivistic cultures where it promotes social support (Neff & Hoppe, 1993), possibly by de-emphasizing personal control, responsibility, and blame for negative life circumstances or perceived failure. Although studies have failed to find a direct relationship between fatalismo and substance use (Unger et al., 2002), fatalismo may influence smoking indirectly by way of family functioning and discrimination. Hispanic children are also frequently socialized according to traditional gender roles that afford boys more freedom than girls (Zayas, Lester, Cabassa, & Fortuna, 2005).

For example, it is more acceptable for boys to smoke cigarettes and venture outside the home than it is for girls (Marsiglia, Kulis, Hussaini, Nieri, & Becerra, 2010). Scholars postulate that Hispanic girls acculturate faster than boys, embracing the liberty that comes with less traditional gender roles (Zayas et al., 2005). As a result, girls may experience more family conflict and less cohesion when parents and other relatives impose rules on them and when they rebel against these gendered restrictions. Hispanic girls endorse more liberal gender role attitudes than boys (Valenzuela, 1999), possibly leading to difficulties in the family domain (Zayas et al., 2005).

GSK-3 The Current Study The current study integrated extant empirical research and theory on acculturation and substance use into a process-oriented model to better understand how diverse acculturation-related experiences influence each other and unfold in the everyday lives of Hispanic youth to influence smoking risk. We also examined how this process differed for boys and girls because acculturation-related experiences can be gendered. Based on research reviewed above, we developed the model illustrated in Figure 1.