, 2012). Together, these studies have demonstrated the power of in vivo and in vitro models in discovering a functional role for miRNAs in the Ku-0059436 research buy nervous system, providing us with a glimpse of cell contextual roles for miRNAs and a key cooperation with transcription factors. Molecular models of learning and memory have

relied heavily on the identification of activity-dependent transcription factors such as c-Fos and CREB (reviewed in Flavell and Greenberg, 2008; Miyamoto, 2006). As mentioned above, extensive studies have identified miR-132 as being regulated by CREB in activity-regulated plasticity. Initial experiments within the context of learning and memory examined miR-132 expression in response to increased activity in vivo. In these studies, miR-132 was rapidly transcribed in the hippocampus after enhanced neuronal activity and contextual fear conditioning (Nudelman et al., 2010). In addition, studies using transgenic mice overexpressing miR-132 in forebrain neurons showed a marked increase in dendritic spine density and impairments in a novel object recognition memory test (Hansen et al., 2010). This functional role for miR-132 in memory formation may at least in part be attributed to the participation of miR-132 Z-VAD-FMK order in the integration of newborn neurons into the adult dentate gyrus. Expression of miR-132 was increased during neuron differentiation and maturation and knockdown

of miR-132 resulted in decreased synapse formation as well as impaired functional integration of newborn neurons (Luikart et al., 2011). Two recent studies highlight the importance of plasticity mechanisms in the developmental refinement of neural ADP ribosylation factor circuits, demonstrating a role for miR-132 in vivo as

critical for the formation of ocular dominance (Mellios et al., 2011; Tognini et al., 2011). In this model, one can study the ability to modulate ocular dominance through the reorganization of neuronal connections in response to visual experience. In both papers, visual experience was shown to regulate miR-132 levels in the visual cortex. Interestingly, light exposure increased the presence of multiple histone posttranslational modifications within the CRE locus that are important for miR-132/miR-212 cluster transcription (Tognini et al., 2011). Both upregulation of miR-132 through miRNA mimic that caused an increase in the fraction of mature dendritic spines (Tognini et al., 2011) and downregulation through miRNA sponge technologies that resulted in more immature spines disrupted optical dominance plasticity (Mellios et al., 2011). Taken together, these data indicate that a very tightly regulated balance of miR-132 expression is required in its functional role in plasticity. In addition to the established roles for miR-132 in learning and memory, novel discoveries are rapidly increasing our understanding of additional miRNAs in these processes.