In sum, according to the cognitive-motivation-based model [14], hope is future-oriented thoughts and motivation, embracing (i) setting up valued and attainable goals, (ii) planning this site primary and alternative goal-directed pathways, and (iii) having positive appraisal of one’s capabilities and effort, that benefit goal pursuit.4. OptimismOptimism refers to positive expectancy about the future [23]. It is a kind of personality that has an obvious benefit in psychological and physical well-being [24]. However, unrealistic optimism can be detrimental if people only expect good things to happen and rarely prepare themselves to cope with the situations, or do not make an accurate evaluation of their life and overanticipate to having a brighter future [25].

It reveals that optimism embraces some cognitive components, such as a goal or an expectation, that regulate behavior. Optimism can then be learnt [26] while it is dispositional, for enabling goal attainment, positive growth and well-being, and vice versa.Based on the conceptual framework of expectancy-valued models of motivation, Carver and Scheier [18] pointed out that optimism embraces (i) valued and attainable goal which keeps adolescents engaged in the process of goal attainment and (ii) a sense of confidence which encourages adolescents to carry out effortful behaviors, even in the face of adversity. Research findings showed that optimistic expectations for future goal pursuit influenced immediate acts [27] and helped in overcoming anticipated obstacles in goal pursuit [28].

Hence, this positive expectancy about the future is similar to goal-directed GSK-3 motivation (agency thinking) [14] and self-efficacy [20] discussed in the previous section. However, the difference is positive expectancy alone elicits goal-directed behaviors in the conception of optimism, whereas both pathway thinking and agency thinking are equally important in bringing forth goal-directed behaviors in the conception of hope. Another difference is optimists engage their efforts to reach goals as long as there is positive expectancy for eventual success, whereas self-efficacious people drive towards their goals as long as they believe they can.Alternatively, Seligman et al. [29] adopted an attribution explanatory model to elucidate optimism. Optimistic adolescents explain good events as having permanent and pervasive causes, hence they are confident and will try harder to achieve positive outcomes in the future. In addition, optimistic adolescents make realistic judgment on one’s responsibility when things go wrong.